The great variety of painting techniques reflects the range of surfaces that are painted on: for instance, tempera technique is used for painting on wood panels and fresco technique for painting on walls. Oil painting is done mainly on canvas, while acrylic, watercolor, gouache and pastels can all be used to paint on paper.
The earliest paintings known are some 15 000 years old, found in the caves of Altamira in Spain and Lascaux in France. The pigments used in these prehistoric sites include burnt wood, bone, chalk and earth colors.
Pigments
Pigments (colors) can be derived from earths, natural dyes and minerals or chemically synthesized. In addition to the pigments used by prehistoric man, verdigris (copper resinate; green), ultramarine (lapis lazuli; blue), white lead, azurite (copper carbonate; blue), madder (red), lead-tin yellow and vermilion (cinnabar; red) were in use in the 14th century and form the basis of the painter's palette even today. Not until Prussian blue was discovered in 1705 and Naples yellow in the 1750s were significant additions made. During the 19th century, however, the range of colors expanded to include new chemical colors such as purples and greens. The identification of pigments can often help in the dating of paintings, based on the knowledge of their discovery and availability to artists.
Drawing tools
The range of drawing tools used by artists begins with the silverpoint, a metal point used mainly in the 15th century on prepared paper, often colored, to show the marks of the implement. The development of the graphite pencil in the 17th century avoided the need for a prepared ground and also enabled the artist to draw in a variety of styles.
From the 16th century charcoal (charred wood), black chalk (black stone) and red chalk (mineral) were extensively used in preparatory drawings. These allow a great freedom of handling, and passages of light and shade are achieved by hatching - drawing fine parallel or crossed lines - smudging and the use of white highlights. Pen and ink may be used for preparatory drawings, either alone or in combination with charcoal or chalk.
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Art Techniques 1: Painting and Drawing (page 2)
ftsTitle
Derer's Hands of an Apostle (1508), a study for the Heller altarpiece, is a brush drawing on blue paper. (The Albertina Collection/Austrian Embassy, London)
Art Techniques 1: Painting and Drawing (2 of 4)
Tempera
Tempera is one of the oldest painting techniques. It is based on a mixture of a water-based liquid with an oily or waxy medium. Traditionally egg white and egg yolk are used together with an oil such as linseed oil, but egg (which acts as a binder) may also be used with water alone. Its quick-drying properties and luminosity of color account for the attraction of tempera. The ground (base) for wood panel tempera paintings was traditionally gesso (calcium sulphate) in Italy, and chalk (calcium carbonate) in northern Europe, both mixed with size (animal glue). This is built up in a series of layers and finally polished to form a smooth surface. On this the painter would draw his design in silverpoint or charcoal or by transferring a design by pouncing - tapping charcoal through a pricked drawing onto the gesso. He would build up the composition with thin layers of paint and washes. Modeling and detail is done with cross hatching (crossed lines), stippling (light dabs and flecks of paint) and transparent glazes applied with fine brushes. Early medieval tempera paintings were modeled from a green earth ground, which formed the shadows, to the paler highlights, often against a gold leaf ground with punched decoration as in the painting of the Madonna by Duccio. Drapery was treated in a similar way.
Fresco
Fresco (Italian `fresh') is a wall-painting technique in which powdered pigments are mixed in water and applied to a wet lime-plaster ground. The colors fuse with the plaster, forming a permanent waterproof surface. Best suited to a warm climate, it was widely used in Italian medieval and Renaissance painting, but it was also used during Classical Roman times, for instance at Pompeii. Most Italian fresco painters used the same technique: a charcoal design was drawn onto the fresh lime-plaster, the main outlines were cut into the surface and the lines of the design were strengthened with sinopia (red ochre). In the 16th century a cartoon (drawing) was used to transfer the design by pouncing onto the plaster. Next, the intonaco (a layer of fine plaster) was applied in small sections over the rough plaster and the design was pounced onto the wet plaster again. These sections are called giornate (from Italian giorno, day) since each represents the area of fresh (that is, wet) plaster that the painter can paint in one day; this can be seen in Giotto's fresco of the mourning of Christ in Padua, where the divisions of each day's plaster are visible around the angels. Mainly natural pigments were used, and the modeling techniques are similar to those used in tempera painting. Finally, finishing touches might be made on the dry plaster in secco (dry), usually an egg tempera. Mistakes were corrected with difficulty, as this usually involved removing the area of plaster and reapplying a fresh layer. The painter needed to be assured and to work in broad strokes. This is evident in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel frescos, where subtle and complicated transitions of color and tone are achieved with remarkably broad strokes of color.
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Art Techniques 1: Painting and Drawing (page 3)
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One of two frescos painted by Botticelli (1445-1510) at the Villa Lemmi in Florence. It shows Venus leading the Graces with an offering for the young woman on the right. (Louvre, Paris/R.M.N.)
Art Techniques 1: Painting and Drawing (3 of 4)
Oil painting techniques were first widely used in 15th-century Netherlandish painting, above all by Jan van Eyck, who developed an oil technique which produced a highly refined glass-like finish. Sixteenth-century Venetian painters explored this medium with great success and it has been the most widely used technique since then.
Oil paint is based on a mixture of dry pigment and vegetable oil, commonly linseed, poppy or walnut oil. It is slow- drying, so the artist is able to make revisions and build up layers of color. Canvas primed with white lead and linseed oil is most commonly used to paint on, although Netherlandish painters often painted on wood panel and copper.
The composition is outlined with char coal or transferred from a squared drawing onto the ground. An underpaint is painted over this: the red ground favored by Titian, the black ground used by Tintoretto and the gray and umber wash laid on by Rubens, for instance, would determine the overall tonality of the painting. The composition is built up in layers of thicker or thinner paint. Over opaque paint a final translucent glaze might be applied, lending a luminosity to highlights or intensifying colors.
Variety in brushwork can have significant visual effect. Paint can be thickly applied with a loaded brush or palette knife, as in Van Gogh's paintings, but brushstrokes are imperceptible if paint is thinned to a runny consistency. Surface textures are achieved by scumbling (applying thin layers of lighter colors over darker underpainting), stippling (applying paint in light dabs) and frottage (taking a rubbing from a rough surface such as wood and applying paint on the resulting textured surface). The final surface is a wax or resin varnish.
Acrylic
Acrylic paint is manufactured from pigment bound in a synthetic resin, normally acrylic or PVA. It is a 20th-century development, initially used in wall painting. Acrylic is an opaque, water-soluble, quick-drying paint. The color, unlike that of oil paint, does not alter with time, and it can be diluted to translucency if required. It has been used to great effect in the paintings of David Hockney.
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Art Techniques 1: Painting and Drawing (page 4)
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Lorenzo Monaco's Coronation of the Virgin (1430). The cross-section illustrates the modeling techniques used in medieval painting. The layers of white, cream and tan paint overlaid by a reddish-brown translucent glaze (with some black particles) form the brown shadow of the sleeve of the right-hand angel. Tempera technique is still in use today: the American painter Andrew Wyeth (1917- ) and the British painter David Tindle (1932- ) are major exponents. (Gambier-Parry Collection, Courtauld Institute Galleries, London)
Art Techniques 1: Painting and Drawing (4 of 4)
Watercolor and gouache
Watercolor is made with pigment bound in a gum arabic medium. It was used as a paint in Egyptian and Oriental painting, although it was most fully explored by 18th- and 19th-century British landscape artists.
Watercolor is distinguished by its translucent quality; it is also extremely versatile. Hand-made paper is preferable as a ground. Over a preparatory sketch in pencil, pen and ink or chalk, the light ground and texture is exploited by overlaying with transparent washes, and by using uncolored areas for highlights. Some watercolors are monochrome - painted only in one color, such as bistre (soot brown) or sepia (ink from cuttle fish), for example Claude Lorraine's landscape sketches.
Gouache is a related technique, although the binding medium is glue, and white pigment is added to give it some opacity. Used by French painters since the 18th century, it is widely used in commercial illustration today.
Pastel
Pastels are sticks of pigment made by mixing powdered pigment with gum or resin binder. Pastels can be easily blended with the finger, resulting in soft contours which retain their freshness of color. Rosalba Carriera pioneered its use in Venice and Degas experimented by mixing it with turpentine or steam to achieve different effects.
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* ART TECHNIQUES 2: SCULPTURE AND PRINT MAKING
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Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (page 1)
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A wood engraving from Thomas Bewick's History of Quadrupeds published in 1800.
Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (1 of 4)
Images were first printed from engraved wooden blocks onto parchment some 3000 to 4000 years ago. In the West, the development of printing coincided with the invention of movable type in the 15th century. Since then, a great variety of different printing techniques has evolved. The enormous popularity of the print is explained by its reproductive character, which makes artistic images accessible to a wide market at a cheap price.
The two main sculpture techniques are carving and modeling. The carved image is created by cutting unwanted material away from a block of hard material, usually stone or wood. Modeling, by contrast, involves manipulating some soft and yielding material such as clay, wax or plaster until the desired image is reached. Carving is the most ancient sculpture technique, but both were known in prehistoric times. Because modeling materials are basically soft, models are generally turned into a more lasting form, either by heating, as with clay, or by casting them in bronze or some other metal. The Egyptians cast bronze models over 3500 years ago.
Relief techniques
Relief techniques of print-making include woodcuts, wood engravings and lancets, and are characterized by an image printed from the raised surface of a block.Woodcuts were used as early as the 14th century for making cheap pilgrims' images and playing cards. The technique was extensively used by Derer and revived by the German Expressionists in the 20th century. The design is drawn onto the wood and cut away along the grain with gouges and knives, leaving only the raised lines of the image ready to be inked. The block is printed by laying paper onto the inked block and rubbing this with a spoon or, later, by a mechanical press to record the image.Wood engraving, thought to have been invented by Thomas Bewick (1753-1828), differs from woodcutting in that normally a hard, fine-grained wood like maple or boxwood is cut into across its end grain, using a lozenge-shaped tool (a burin) similar to the sort used for engraving. The resulting image is usually much finer than a woodcut. Commonly used for fine book illustrations during the 19th century, it was also popular with illustrators such as Eric Ravilious during the 1920s.
Lancets are made using the floor covering material linoleum, a cheap and easily carved surface that can be worked with gouges and knives similar to those used for woodcutting and engraving. Although it does not allow great subtlety of detail, it was favored by artists in the 1920s, including Picasso.
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Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (page 2)
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Rodin's The Age of Bronze (1876): a cast bronze sculpture. (Musce d'Orsay, Paris/R.M.N.)
Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (2 of 4)
Intaglio techniques
Intaglio techniques differ from relief techniques since the image is printed from lines cut into a metal plate, either with metal engraving tools, or by acid biting into the exposed areas of the plate.
Engraving techniques stem originally from those used in gem carving and in the decoration of armor. The 15th-century Italian niello or line engraving technique was used by many Italian and German Renaissance artists for their prints. A zinc or copper plate is engraved with a sharp tool. The plate is then inked with a tacky ink and all the uncut surfaces wiped clean - leaving ink only in the recessed furrows. The print is then produced by passing the plate and a sheet of dampened paper through a press. The pressure forces the paper into the engraved lines, producing the raised lines characteristic of this technique.
Etching was used as a technique during the 17th and 18th centuries by artists such as Rembrandt, and revived in the late 19th century by Whistler (1834-1903). The design is etched onto a copper plate coated in a blackened acid-resistant material (the hard ground), using a steel needle, which exposes the metal. The plate is then immersed in a bath of acid, which bites into the exposed lines; these are characterized by blunt ends, rather than the tapered lines of engraving. To accentuate areas of light and shade or to add lines, parts of the plate are protected or `stopped out' with a varnish and the plate is then re-immersed in the acid. Some lines might even be reinforced by engraving. The plate is then cleaned of all ground, inked, wiped clean and printed using the same method as for engraving.
Aquatint is commonly used to imitate the effect of watercolors and was probably developed by Jean-Baptiste le Prince(1734-84). A copper plate is coated with powdered resin. When it is immersed in an acid bath, small areas of copper between the particles of dust are exposed. The acid biting into the copper produces a rough granular surface, and it is this roughness that holds the ink. In successive immersions areas not protected by a varnish are bitten into further, producing the tonal effects. The design can be drawn or etched onto the plate before the ground is laid, or the stopping out can be done without any drawing for guidance.
Mezzotint was a very popular technique during the 18th and 19th centuries for reproductions after oil paintings. It was probably invented in 1642 by Ludwig von Siegen (1609-76), and developed by Prince Rupert of Bavaria. The ground is prepared by passing a serrated rocker over the metal, leaving a varying number of indentations in which ink will collect and produce the tonal values. The tone engraving is then achieved by scraping away for darker tones and burnishing for highlights.
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Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (page 3)
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Donatello's The Virgin and Child (left) (c. 1444), a painted and gilded terracotta relief. (Louvre, Paris/R.M.N.)
Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (3 of 4)
Planographic methods
Planographic techniques are those characterized by surface-printing methods.
Lithography - the term literally means `stone drawing' - depends upon the mutual incompatibility of water and grease. A limestone slab several centimeters thick (a grained alloy plate is now normally used) is either polished to a smooth surface, or given a texture or `tooth'. The design is drawn or painted onto the stone with a greasy material such as crayon or lithographic ink. A solution of nitric acid and gum arabic is applied to the unmarked areas, which repels the lithographic ink wiped onto the surface of the dampened stone before printing. Paper is then laid onto the inked stone and passed through a press. The drawn areas attract the ink, while the moist surfaces repel it. The method was used by Honore Daumier for his satirical cartoons and by Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901) for posters. Since the mid-19th century, many technical developments have aided the expansion of lithographic methods for commercial use, particularly photolithography and offset lithography .
Screen printing was developed in the 20th century. A screen of silk or gauze is tautly stretched over a wooden or metal frame. The design is applied to the screen in the form of a stencil so that areas not to be colored are blocked out. Ink is wiped across the screen with a wiper (or squeegee) and the ink is pushed through the mesh onto the paper. The development of photo-screen printing offered Pop artists such as Andy Warhol and Robert Rauschenberg a suitable modern technique for their images.
Sculpture carving techniques
Stone carving can be done from granite, limestone, sandstone, alabaster and a variety of marbles. The basic set of tools employed by the stone carver includes the mallet and point or punch, for knocking off chips to give a rough shape, and a square hammer (boucharde) to work the surfaces roughly; they are then refined with a series of flat, bull-nosed and tooth or claw chisels. For undercutting or defining hair and recessions a drill is used. Lastly, surfaces are finished by polishing with rasps and rifflers (files) and abrasives.
Wood carving frequently reflects the local availability of a certain species of wood: for instance, limewood, commonly used by Renaissance German sculptors, was cheap and abundant - while in England oak was more frequently carved. Sculpture and reliefs are carved from the heartwood of the tree and in the direction of the grain. The exception is in the use of extremely fine-grained fruit woods such as boxwood, where the sculptor can carve in any direction. The basic tools are similar to the stone carver's but lighter and sharper. In Europe wooden and stone sculpture would originally have been polychromed, providing a protective surface. In the 20th century a natural oiled or varnished surface is preferred, and enhances the grain and color of the wood.
Other materials that are commonly carved for small-scale sculpture are ivory, amber, shells and semi-precious stones.
Modeling techniques
Materials such as clay, wax and plaster are employed both in the preparatory stages of sculpture in other media and as finished modeled sculpture.
Depending on the materials, normally a three-dimensional shape is built up around an armature (framework) in metal or wood, which provides an inner support and surface for working. In the case of a relief, this is provided by a board studded with nail heads that act as a key for the material. The material is modeled with the fingers, with knives used for cutting the mass and scrapers for smoothing the surfaces. Models in clay are fired, while wax or plaster models are left in their raw state. Maquettes (models) are often used by carvers (e.g. Henry Moore, 1898-1986) as a means of working out the design of a sculpture before carving. Often these are scaled up by a mechanical pointing machine for transfer to stone or wood.
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Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (page 4)
ftsTitle
An etching of a baker's shop (1635) by Jan Joris van der Vliet illustrates the detail that can be achieved with this technique.
` I Art Techniques 2: Sculpture and Printmaking (4 of 4)
Casting techniques
The two principal casting techniques - the lost-wax process and sand casting - have been employed by bronze casters for thousands of years. Bronze, a copper and tin alloy, is the main metal cast in these ways, although brass may also be used.
The lost-wax process involves building up a wax layer, to the thickness of the eventual bronze, around a solid core model made from plaster and grog (previously fired clay ground up and mixed with fresh clay). Wax rods, termed risers and runners, are fixed at angles to the model and when the wax has burnt away these act as channels for the escaping gases and for the molten bronze. The model is covered in plaster with the rods projecting and meeting in a funnel-shaped depression at the base. This is then placed, inverted, in an oven heated to around 650
C (1200
This causes the core to harden and the wax to burn away, forming a thin cavity into which the molten bronze is poured through the funnel. Once the bronze has cooled down, the plaster investment is broken off, and the plaster core chipped out. The surface of the metal is then chased (polished and chiseled) and a final patina (a chemical coloring) applied as a decorative enhancement of the metal, which is then sealed with lacquer.
Sand casting involves making a mold of a model using special casting sand, which will retain a detailed impression even when inverted. The dampened sand is placed in two rectangular metal frames. The mold is made by packing round each half of the mold in turn with the sand. Each frame then contains half a mold. These piece-molds are then matched exactly and clamped together to form a flask. Channels are cut into the sand as vents and gates, with a wider channel for the pouring end. A cavity for the molten metal is created by suspending an inner sand core within the metal, held in place with metal rods. The whole is hardened in an oven. Molten metal is then poured in, and once cooled the mold is broken away and the core chipped out. The characteristic raised lines left by the piece mold were often used to decorative advantage (as in Chinese bronzes) but more often filed off when the metal surface was chased.
Modern sculpture techniques include welding and construction, which borrow methods from industrial metalworking methods.
* PRINTING
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* ART TECHNIQUES 1: PAINTING AND DRAWING
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Prehistoric Art (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Lascaux caves consist of a main chamber and several steep galleries, all decorated with painted and engraved animals. (Archiv fer Kunst)
Prehistoric Art (1 of 3)
The world's most ancient works of art date from 30 000 BC. This is vastly earlier than the first written records and means that the greater part of art history is, in fact, prehistoric. It was during the prehistoric period that virtually all the major artistic media evolved, including drawing, painting, sculpture, ceramics and, arguably, architecture. The study of prehistoric art differs from traditional art history in two fundamental ways. Firstly, there is little opportunity to identify individual artists - instead, works of art are discussed with reference to archaeological evidence. Secondly, prehistoric art is usually the art of relatively simple, non-urban societies.
Humans `invented' art independently in various regions around the world. There are examples of ancient rock art in Africa, particularly in the Sahara, and there is recent evidence that the tradition of rock art in Australia dates from at least 17 000 BC. Pottery was invented during the prehistory of the Near East in the 7th millennium BC. However, the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) art of Europe is the earliest and most splendid prehistoric art, while the traditions that succeeded it until the Roman conquests are the most intensively researched in the world.
Palaeolithic sculpture
Body painting is probably the most ancient of visual arts, but sculpture is the first for which evidence has survived. From 30 000 BC hunters and gatherers shaped figurines out of clay, bone, stone, wood and ivory. These figurines, which have been found scattered over a wide area from Spain to Siberia, depict both animals - such as bears and horses - and humans. Some, typified by the famous `Venus' of Willendorf in Austria, portray women with exaggerated breasts and buttocks, and have been linked to a supposed fertility cult. Others, such as the female head from Brassempouy, France, are more elegant and naturalistic. Tools, particularly spear-throwers, were also decorated by this sculpture-in-the-round technique. However, decorated tools are generally much later than the early figurines and are closely related to cave art.
Cave art
Painting, engraving and relief sculpture on the walls of caves began later than figurine sculpture, and flourished soon after 16 000 BC. Cave art is found mostly in southern France and northeastern Spain, sometimes deep within cave systems, and sometimes near cave entrances or in shallow rock shelters.
The hunters who created cave art were inspired by the animals around them, particularly by large mammals such as deer, horses, wild cattle, bison, woolly rhinoceroses and mammoths. They drew a few human and semi-human figures, but never trees or plants or any landscape.
One of the mysteries of cave art is that although `panels' of rock often contain many images of animals, these are rarely arranged in compositions. Often the animals are drawn to different scales, or are even made to overlap one another. Despite this, many galleries are very impressive, including those at Lascaux, France, which show leaping and galloping wild cattle and horses.
Since cave art began to be accepted as Palaeolithic in the late 19th century, it has been interpreted in many ways. An early theory claimed that many of the animals were shown dead or wounded in order to bring luck in hunting. Other ideas were that the animals illustrated tribal mythologies or clan totems, or that they marked out sacred areas used for initiation or fertility rites. More recently it has been noticed that certain animals tend to occur together, such as horses with bison, or in specific parts of the caves. One controversial theory interprets all the images within each cave, together with the non-representational marks that sometimes accompany them, as part of an elaborate system of opposed symbols centered around the male/female relationship. A more widely accepted idea is that specially decorated caves helped to promote group identity among hunters who depended upon each other for survival.
Early pottery
In the Neolithic (New Stone Age) period, farming and settled village life spread across Europe (c. 6500-4000 BC). This encouraged both the use of pottery and the development of architecture.
Shaped and decorated vessels were produced almost everywhere, but the most prolific and inventive potters lived in Eastern Europe. The Vinca culture of Serbia produced thousands of fired-clay figurines, including some dramatically stylized heads found at Predionica, Serbia. Related cultures manufactured pots shaped like human figures, animals or even houses. Eastern Neolithic pottery was often painted: the designs of the Cucuteni culture of Romania employed both powerful swirls and intricate geometric patterns.
* EARLY MAMMALS
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN)
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE CELTS
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Prehistoric Art (page 2)
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Celtic metalwork necklace with inlay. The Celts often used fluid plant-like swirls to decorate their jewelry, weapons and vessels.
GillSans Bold;Prehistoric Art (2 of 3)
Houses, tombs and temples
Houses in Neolithic Europe varied in design from small mud-brick buildings in the southern Balkans to timber long houses in central and western Europe. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae (c. 3000 BC) in the Orkneys, Scotland, consists of drystone houses equipped with stone furniture. Stone was also used to erect massive walls and bastions around the town of Los Millares, Spain, which dates from the same period. However, the most impressive Neolithic buildings are the megalithic (`large-stone') monuments of the Atlantic seaboard.
The passage grave of Newgrange in Ireland (c. 3200 BC) is a particularly brilliant example of megalithic design. The passage leading to the tomb chamber was carefully constructed to allow sunrays to illuminate the chamber at midwinter. The huge cairn covering the chamber is ringed by kerbstones carved with spirals and other patterns, similar to those found on many tombs in Ireland, Brittany and Spain.
Some of the hundreds of stone circles erected in Britain and Ireland also contain astronomical alignments, including the famous circle at Stonehenge. The design of Stonehenge was remarkably ambitious in its use of dressed stone and lintels balanced on uprights, but perhaps the most sophisticated Neolithic architecture developed on Malta.
The Maltese temples (c. 3600-2500 BC) were built of large blocks of stone to a ground plan that was originally shaped rather like a three-leaf clover. This design was elaborated in the later temples, and the blocks of stone were carefully shaped to create impressive facades. Beautifully balanced spiral carvings still decorate some temples, and many of the walls were originally covered with painted plaster. At the complex temple of Tarxien there are animal friezes and the surviving half of a monumental sculpture depicting a hugely corpulent deity. This fat deity is also portrayed in smaller works, and these provide an interesting contrast to the elegant contemporary sculpture of the Cyclades.
of the Cyclades.
of the Cyclades.
* EARLY MAMMALS
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN)
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE CELTS
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Prehistoric Art (page 3)
ftsTitle
Bronze horse pulling a gold-covered sun symbol dating from the 12th-11th centuries BC. It was found at Trundholm, Denmark.
GillSans Bold;Prehistoric Art (3 of 3)
Bronze and Iron Age
During later European prehistory, despite advances in pottery and architecture, the most exciting artistic innovations arose from the development of metalwork. In the 2nd millennium BC in Eastern Europe, early cast bronze weapons and jewelry were delicately engraved with curvilinear (curved-line) designs. Similar decoration appears on Scandinavian metalwork: a remark able ritual object found at Trundholm, Denmark, consists of a cast bronze horse pulling an engraved gold-covered sun symbol.
During the earlier 1st millennium BC many more bronze figures were cast, not ably in Scandinavia, central Europe and Sardinia. Engraving remained common, but the beating or embossing of metal work grew in importance. Embossed friezes on the bronze `buckets' or situlae of northern Italy and Slovenia (c. 600-350 BC) illustrate religious processions and other lively scenes.
Situla art was partly inspired by the art of the Near East and Greece. This is also true of the last great prehistoric tradition, that of the Celts. However, even the earliest Celtic art (c. 450 BC) subverted the influence of the civilizations to the east and attempted to integrate abstract patterns and representational images. The Celts decorated weapons, vessels and pieces of jewelry in such a fluid style that it is often impossible to separate the stylized Celtic heads and animals from the surrounding plant-like ornament. It is the use of these supple motifs within a wonderfully balanced overall design that characterizes the finest Celtic art.
CYCLADIC SCULPTURE
Between 3000 and 2000 BC some of the most accomplished prehistoric European sculpture was created on the Cyclades islands of the Aegean. An early tradition of grinding the local translucent marble into simple schematic idols was refined to produce striking figurines up to 1.5 m (5 ft) long.
The most famous type of figurine is a naked, slender, usually female figure with her arms folded above her waist. The elegance and simplicity of such figures attract the modern eye; however, it should be remembered that the faces, now featureless except for a prominent nose, may originally have been painted.
The folded-arm figurines were relatively easy to manufacture as the limbs were often differentiated from the body only by simple incisions. There is a more elaborate group of figurines in which the limbs are fully rounded and the pose much more relaxed (some are even seated). The most remarkable of these portray musicians with harps and flutes, while a rare grouped example depicts two men whose linked arms support a smaller figure.
A Cycladic figurine: the face may originally have been painted.
* EARLY MAMMALS
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN)
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE CELTS
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p506-1
ftsTitleOverride
Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (page 1)
ftsTitle
Assyrian sculpture of the winged sphinx from the 8th century BC.
The Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (1 of 6)
Early civilizations flourished along the great river valleys of the Nile in Egypt, and the Tigris and Euphrates from Anatolia (present-day Turkey), through Syria into Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). The rivers linked these regions in an extensive trade network that also encompassed Persia (present-day Iran) to the east, but variations in climate, geography, natural resources and population resulted in corresponding variations in artistic traditions. Mesopotamia depended on imports for the raw materials it lacked, and exported manufactured goods that influenced the art of Persia, Syria-Palestine and Anatolia. Ancient Near Eastern art varied according to the degree of Mesopotamian cultural dominance, and much of it was politically motivated. In contrast the conventions of Egyptian art remained remarkably consistent throughout the dynastic period. Egyptian artists created sculptures in order to represent the things that they wanted to enjoy after death.
Mesopotamia
Monumental sculpture appeared in the Uruk period (c. 3500-3000 BC) and is typified by the life-size Warka head, which displays a classical serenity. The Mesopotamians preferred relief carving, however: lively hunting and battle scenes decorate Assyrian reliefs of the 9th-7th centuries BC. Thousands of miniature reliefs have survived on small cylinder-shaped seals of stone that were used from c. 3500 for more than 3000 years. Particularly fine examples, many of lapis lazuli, were found in the Royal Graves at Ur (c. 2600 BC) along with metalwork, jewelry, and mosaic panels inlaid with shell and stone.
Mud-brick was the principal building material. In the Ubaid period (5th millennium BC) huge circular buildings occur alongside T-shaped units. In the Uruk period T-shaped temples 80 m (260 ft) long, with elaborately niched and buttressed facades, display a monumentality only paralleled by ziggurats (temple towers) constructed from the late 3rd millennium BC onwards, and by palaces built by the Assyrians and Babylonians around huge courtyards in the first half of the first millennium BC.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST (HISTORY)
* ANCIENT EGYPT (HISTORY)
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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p506-2
ftsTitleOverride
Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (page 2)
ftsTitle
The winged lion in enameled brick relief c. 500 BC from the palace of Darius at Susa. Darius undertook an ambitious program of construction at Susa, and the architectural style developed there remained unchanged until the demise of the Achaemenid Empire.
The Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (2 of 6)
Ancient Persia
Susa in southwest Persia developed an urban civilization contemporary with that of Uruk, but the cultural diversity of other sites reflects their geographical location in isolated valleys. As a result many distinctive pottery styles flourished, some of them beautifully painted with stylized animal designs. Metalwork excelled at all periods and the life-size, cast-bronze statue of Queen Napirasu (13th century BC) is a technical masterpiece. The Luristan bronzes of the late 2nd and earliest millennium BC display bizarre combinations of lions, birds and humans.
The Achaemenid rulers of the 6th-4th centuries BC sought to unite their empire culturally and created an imperial style that drew on the traditions and craftsmen of the whole ancient Near East and Egypt. This style is best seen at their capital, Persepolis, with its halls of tall columns and reliefs depicting tribute-bearers from all parts of the empire.
Ramses II: a stone figure from the 19th dynasty (1270 BC), found at Thebes. (British Museum, London/ Ronald A. Chapman)
The Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (3 of 6)
Syria-Palestine
Carved stone masks, plastered human skulls and votive figures of gypsum plaster over a framework of reeds have been found at many sites of the 8th millennium BC, notably at Jericho, where a huge, circular tower was built of stone. Objects and paintings from the palaces at Mari and Ebla, 3rd-2nd millennium, incorporate Mesopotamian and Anatolian features, but Egyptian and Aegean motifs adorn the jewelry and ceremonial weapons of the coastal cities of Byblos and Ugarit.
In the 1st millennium BC Phoenician bowls and ivory carving were widely traded and, according to the Bible, Hiram of Tyre was employed to cast metal objects for Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST (HISTORY)
* ANCIENT EGYPT (HISTORY)
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (page 4)
ftsTitle
An Egyptian sculpture from the 9th century BC of the gods Osiris and Isis and their son Horus, in gold and lapis-lazuli.
The Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (4 of 6)
Anatolia
Extraordinary scenes - with vultures, bull-dances, textile patterns, and what might be a landscape with a volcano erupting - decorated shrines from the 6th-millennium BC at
atal Heyek in central Anatolia. The site has also produced numerous stone and clay figurines of women, youths and leopards.
Combinations of metals characterize Anatolian metalwork, notably the figure of a stag with huge, stylized horns, made of bronze inlaid with electrum, from Alaca Heyek(c. 2300 BC). The extraordinary inlaid furniture in the Tomb of Midas at Gordion reflects, in wood, the same taste for combining colors and textures.
The massive city walls of the Hittite capital at Bogazkoy and the foundations of its temples survive, as does a rock-cut shrine with reliefs depicting processions of deities. The monumental quality of Hittite art continued into the 1st millennium BC at Carchemish and other sites along the Syrian frontier, where palaces with columned porticoes were decorated with lively reliefs. These and gateway figures of lions inspired the Assyrians.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST (HISTORY)
* ANCIENT EGYPT (HISTORY)
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (page 5)
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An Egyptian glazed hippopotamus (Middle Kingdom, c. 1900 BC). (Art History Museum, Vienna/Austrian Embassy, London)
The Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (5 of 6)
Egypt
Egyptian artists were concerned more with religious ritual than with decorative effect or aesthetic achievements. They created sculptures and paintings primarily in order to represent the things that they wanted to continue to enjoy after death. Because they wanted to reproduce things in their entirety rather than simply as they appeared from one viewpoint, they often depicted elements of objects that would not usually be visible. The conventions of Egyptian art remained remarkably consistent throughout the dynastic period. Only in the reign of Akhenaton - the Amarna period (c. 1360-1330 BC) - were artists permitted to depict scenes with any real freedom and innovation.
The Egyptians were skilled in many forms of painting, from illuminated papyri to sketches on chips of rock or pottery. Their greatest achievements, however, were in the decoration of the walls of tombs, such as those in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. The rock or brick surface was prepared with a smooth layer of plaster, and the lines of the paintings were executed by a skilled `outline scribe', employing a grid of red lines in order to maintain the convention of 18 fists for the height of each human figure. Teams of artists would then paint the designs with the appropriate colors.
Egyptian sculptures dating from around 3000 BC took the form of ceremonial palettes and maceheads. Throughout the dynastic period Egyptian sculpture was enormously varied, both in materials and subject matter, ranging from the series of delicately carved wooden panels decorating the tomb of Hesyre (c. 2620 BC) at Saqqara to the huge statues of Amenophis III (c. 1370 BC) at Western Thebes, known as the Colossi of Memnon.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST (HISTORY)
* ANCIENT EGYPT (HISTORY)
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (page 6)
ftsTitle
A rare Egyptian sculpture in green stone of a lion falling on a calf (Late Period, c. 500 BC). (Art History Museum, Vienna/Austrian Embassy, London) Persepolis: (right) the capital of the Achaemenid rulers of Persia (6th-4th centuries BC). (Keystone Press Agency)
The Art of the Ancient Near East and Egypt (6 of 6)
Egypt
The many masterpieces of life-size statuary include a magnificent diorite seated figure of the 4th-dynasty pharaoh Chephren (c. 2500 BC) and a standing wooden figure of the 5th-dynasty priest Ka-aper (known as the Sheikh el-Beled), both from the necropolis at Giza. The contents of the tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun, discovered in 1922, give some idea of the wide range of types of statue that would have been placed in a royal tomb.
The first houses and shrines in Egypt were made of organic materials, often bonded together with mud. Out of the earliest Predynastic graves (shallow pits covered with sand) developed the mastaba tomb, the forerunner of the pyramid, which consisted of a pit or maze of corridors covered by a mud-brick superstructure. Mastaba tombs of members of the earliest Egyptian royal families have been excavated at Saqqara and Abydos.
In the time of Djoser (c. 2620 BC) the earliest pyramid - the Step Pyramid - was built at Saqqara by the first known architect, Imhotep. From the reign of Djoser until the end of the Middle Kingdom virtually every pharaoh was buried in a pyramid complex, usually of stone. The 4th-dynasty Great Pyramids at Giza are the largest and best preserved. During the pyramid age, the pharaoh's wealthier subjects continued to be buried in mastaba tombs and rock tombs.
In the 16th century BC, the pharaohs and their families began to be interred in secret burial chambers in Western Thebes (the Valley of the Kings), probably in an attempt to prevent plundering of their grave goods. These New Kingdom royal tombs consisted of long corridors with painted walls that showed mythological scenes.
Secular buildings throughout Egyptian history were built mainly of mud brick, while virtually all Egyptian temples were constructed of stone. The vast Temple of Amun at Karnak, the core of which dates to the New Kingdom, contains most of the basic elements of the Egyptian temple, including a hypostyle (columned) hall with a huge forest of columns covering an area of 6000 m2 (7200 sq yd). By the Ptolemaic period (from 305 BC) temple reliefs had become formulaic and uninspired.
Roman mosaic of fish and other sea life from Pompeii.
Greek and Roman Art (1 of 6)
The arts of Greece and Rome are characterized by a sense of proportion, harmony and balance. Since the Renaissance, Classical decoration, whether ornate or simple, has frequently provided architects with a fruitful source of ideas, and Classical imagery has enriched the work of poets, painters and sculptors. In general, Classical form has exerted a largely civilizing influence over the past two and a half millennia.
The Treasury at Petra, an ancient city situated in a rocky defile in what is now Jordan. The capital of the Nabateans, an Arab people, Petra became part of the Roman Empire in ad 106. Its buildings and tombs - cut into solid rock - show strong Hellenistic and Roman influences.
Greek and Roman Art (2 of 6)
This influence has been achieved in part by the surviving architecture, sculpture and ceramics (which have been surveyed, collected and catalogued with mixed success since the 18th century), and in part by the writings of ancient Roman scholars. Among these scholars were Vitruvius (1st century BC), whose writings on architecture inspired Palladio in the 16th century; and Philostratus (?2nd/3rd century AD), to whom Mantegna and Rubens looked for their knowledge of the lost works of the Greek painters Apelles and Zeuxis.
The concentration on what has survived, and the elevation of some of it to the first rank of artistic excellence in modern eyes, have tended to obscure the fact that we now possess very little of what ancient Greeks and Romans might have considered to be artistically important. Although today even fragments of Greek pots, for example, are highly valued, the Greeks and Romans themselves were more materialistic, and tended rather to appreciate highly wrought works in gold and silver. Since articles of precious metal were the first to be seized or melted down in times of war or hardship, such works have virtually all vanished, but contemporary accounts of shrines and temples, as well as of the houses of rich individuals, speak of great amounts of sculpture and vases made of gold and silver, and it was in these media that eminent craftsmen preferred to work.
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE HELLENISTIC AGE
* ROMAN HISTORY
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT EUROPE
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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ftsTitleOverride
Greek and Roman Art (page 3)
ftsTitle
Venus von Arles by the Greek sculptor Praxiteles (c. 400-330 BC). Praxiteles' Aphrodite of Knidos (c. 350 BC) is thought to have started the tradition of life-size female nudes in ancient Greek sculpture.
Greek and Roman Art (3 of 6)
The Archaic period
What remains of Archaic Greek art (of the 6th and earlier 5th centuries BC) consists mostly of marble and pottery, with a little bronze. Luxury arts are represented by seals cut in semiprecious stones, jewelry, and coins. Apart from the silver ox at Delphi, perhaps the most impressive surviving object of the period is the huge (1.64 m / 5 ft 5 in high) Vix crater (a wine-mixing bowl). The figurine of a woman on the lid and the warriors on the frieze on the neck display the famous `archaic smile' - Lucian's `holy and forgetful' smile - that characterized much Archaic sculpture well into the 5th century. We are used to seeing it on the anonymous marble kouroi (youths) and korai (maidens) that have survived in considerable numbers, or on the painted decoration of archaic Greek pottery.
If, however, we consider the artifacts thought worthy of note by contemporaries, we get a rather different picture. One of the most sought-after artists in the 6th century was Theodore of Samos. He made a gold wine crater and a vine set with jewels for the bedroom of Darius, the king of Persia. He made the ring of the tyrant Polycrates, and a silver bowl that was among the gifts sent by Croesus, king of Lydia, to Delphi. Other gifts included a statue of a woman in gold,
1.8 m (6 ft) high. This object may have been of solid gold, but it was more usual for temple sculpture to be of wood or marble covered with gold sheathing. Thus a statue of Apollo at Sparta was considered to be unfinished until it was gilded. A statue stolen by a Persian from Delos in 490 is said to have been covered with gold, and the same is true of one of the earliest statues carved in Greek marble presented by an Egyptian pharaoh to a temple at Lindos in the mid-6th century BC. The practice seems to have had its origins in the Near East, and continues today in the modern Greek custom of covering icons with precious metal.
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE HELLENISTIC AGE
* ROMAN HISTORY
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT EUROPE
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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ftsTitleOverride
Greek and Roman Art (page 4)
ftsTitle
Greek libation bowl (detail) from c. 400 BC, found in a tomb at Thrace (modern Bulgaria). The bowl is made of silver, with gold-figure ornament showing a chariot race. This effect was evoked by the artisans who decorated Athenian pottery.
(Michael Vickers)
Greek and Roman Art (4 of 6)
The Classical period
In the Classical period (5th and 4th centuries BC) there is again a marked discrepancy between what there is and what we know there was. The marble sculpture that once adorned the Parthenon in Athens is rightly regarded as exemplifying the Classical ideal, but it is frequently forgotten that it only cost about 4% of the total cost of the building, and that 50% went on Phidias' gold and ivory cult-figure of Athena Parthenos. More than 10 m (33 ft) high, and incorporating gold worth some $20 million at today's prices, this and Phidias' other great masterpiece, the Zeus at Olympia, are what the Greeks would have considered to be the greatest works of their time. The Zeus was still being tended by Phidias' descendants in the 2nd century AD, but was stripped of its precious metal by the first Christian emperor, Constantine, and its remains taken to Constantinople, where they were destroyed by fire in the 5th century. However, the image of a majestic seated and bearded deity survived, and was adopted by Byzantine Greek artists as the model for Christ Pantocrator (Christ had hitherto been shown beardless), thus providing the basis for a potent image that has lasted until today.
Painted pottery appears prominently in today's picture of Classical Greece, but its role in antiquity is currently being reassessed. Most of it comes from the graves of rich Etruscans, who seem to have had the pots as substitutes for silver table vessels. Black and red pottery evokes the appearance of vases of patinated (`oxidized') silver decorated with gold-figure ornament. The imagery preserves something of the imagery on the few pieces of Classical plate that have escaped the melting pot. Of the major Classical paintings, nothing survives except awestruck contemporary accounts of the ability of the greatest painters to mimic nature. Classical paintings presented an idealized vision of the past, retold in the light of the Greeks' recent victories over the Persians. Allegory in art was another major Greek contribution.
eek contribution.
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE HELLENISTIC AGE
* ROMAN HISTORY
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT EUROPE
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Greek and Roman Art (page 5)
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A Roman portrait bust from the 1st century BC. In contrast to the idealized portraits of the Greeks, the Romans preferred realistic depictions of individual personalities. (Vienna Classical Art Collection/Austrian Embassy, London)
Greek and Roman Art (5 of 6)
The Hellenistic period
Alexander the Great's conquests (which included the capture of 4680 tons of gold and silver from the Persians) led to an emphasis on the aggrandizement of the ruler, rather than that of the city-state. There was even a plan to carve the Athos peninsula (some 32 km / 20 mi long) in the shape of a reclining Alexander. Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, Pergamon in western Asia Minor (modern Turkey) were major artistic centers. The Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon (now in Berlin) gives us some idea of Hellenistic splendor. The `Tazza Farnese' (now in Naples) is one of the few pieces of court art of the period to have survived. The red mold-made pottery reflects the use of gold vessels on the tables of the rich.
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE HELLENISTIC AGE
* ROMAN HISTORY
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT EUROPE
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Greek and Roman Art (page 6)
ftsTitle
Greek and Roman Art (6 of 6)
Roman art and architecture
Rome was the successor to all of this. Republican simplicity gave way to the flamboyant luxury of the Caesars, but once more we only have the husks of a few great buildings, which would once have been covered with exotic marbles and rich mosaics. The frescoes and mosaics from Pompeii and Herculaneum are but a pale reflection. Sculptors were commissioned to make portraits of the emperor that would be set up throughout the Empire, and to decorate public monuments such as Trajan's Column or the Arch of Constantine with idealized renditions of imperial triumphs and expressions of official propaganda. Occasional finds, such as the Hildesheim Treasure, give us an idea of the great artistry that went into the production of gold and silver plate. Glass has survived in some quantity, but it was rarely a luxury item, and pottery never was. Arretine pottery does, however, preserve something of the appearance of lost work in gold.
The ordinary inhabitants of the great cities of the Empire, such as Rome, Milan and Trier, might share in the imperial splendor in their great public buildings. Temples, market places, assembly halls (basilicas), amphitheatres and circuses were built on a large scale, frequently incorporating arches, vaults and domes in their construction. The applied use of the Classical architectural `Orders', however, served to humanize them and to clothe them with dignity.
THE CLASSICAL ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE
Corinthian (from the Portico of Hadrian, Athens)
Ionic (from the Erechtheum on the Athenian Acropolis)
Doric (from the Parthenon, Athens)
The difference between the Orders' of Classical architecture can be seen most clearly in the capitals at the tops of pillars. In buildings employing all three orders, Doric was used for the lowest level, Ionic for the middle, and Corinthian at the top.
Museum, Oxford)
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE HELLENISTIC AGE
* ROMAN HISTORY
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT EUROPE
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Islamic Art (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India is one of the most celebrated Mogul buildings. It was built 1630-48 during the reign of Mogul emperor Shah Jahan, who commissioned it as a mausoleum for his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
Islamic Art (1 of 4)
Geographically Islamic art extends from Indonesia in the east to Morocco and Spain in the west. The word `Islamic' reflects a culture and society united by Islam, but as artistic influences from Arabia (the birthplace of Islam) were minimal, Islam can in some ways also be seen as a catalyst for the development of existing Byzantine, Persian and later Indian styles that prevailed when the conquering Muslim armies arrived. The faith and practice of Islam had a particular influence on architecture and calligraphy. Although by no means absolute, traditionally there is a ban on the representation of living figures in a religious context, which accounts for the often semi-abstract nature of Islamic ornament and for the virtual absence of sculpture. However, there is a fine tradition of miniature painting.
Detail from the Crdoba mosque doorway in Spain. It shows the geometric patterning typical of Islamic decoration.
Islamic Art (2 of 4)
The origins of the mosque
The early mosque was a simple building that was roughly based on the Prophet Muhammad's house at Medina, which had a minbar or pulpit added to it so that his voice could reach the increasingly big crowds that gathered around him. With the early Arab conquests the congregational or Friday Mosque developed. This typically included a minaret, a tower from which the faithful are called to prayer. Reflecting its use as both a religious building and a popular debating hall and law court, the mosque took on a rectangular form like the Roman forum or the Greek agora.
The early mosques and the place of government of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) - which ruled from Damascus - both reflected the increasing authority of the caliph (`deputy' of the Prophet) and of the state. The Umayyads drew on Byzantine and Persian tradition, recycling materials from churches and temples without inhibition, not only as a quarrying procedure but also to symbolize the triumph of Islam.
The Caliph al-Walid introduced the mihrab (recess indicating the direction of Mecca) when he had the Prophet's house at Medina rebuilt. At Basra its governor installed a screened enclosure (maqsura) between the mosque and his place of government so that he as imam (spiritual leader) would not have to pass among the people.
Some suggest that the most famous Umayyad building, the Qubbat al-Sakhra or Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, was built to rival the Great Mosque at Mecca, and it has also been compared with earlier Christian shrines. Al-Walid's slightly later Great Mosque of Damascus already owes less to Christianity, despite the re-use of Byzantine materials.
An Indian miniature featuring a Mogul prince speaking to a dervish (an Islamic mystic). (Bodleian Library, Oxford/Archiv fer Kunst).
Islamic Art (3 of 4)
A Persian golden age
Although in Persia the Arab-style mosque with pillar-supported roof was used to begin with, the Persian kiosk (an open-sided pavilion) based on the Zoroastrian fire temple also appeared. The Great Mosque of Isfahan was initially of Arab-style baked bricks with cylindrical piers supporting a wooden roof. A maqsura and, later, a huge brick dome were also added. Further additions were continually made until the 15th century.
The Seljuk dynasty (1038-1194) excelled in the use of brick masonry and stucco. Sadly, many of the great Seljuk monuments in Iran were destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century and by Tamerlane (Timur) in the 14th.
Under the early Safavids (1501-1732), painting, textiles, metalwork and ceramics flourished, but Safavid architecture only developed with the dynasty's move to Isfahan under Shah Abbas I (1588-1629). His Isfahan was one of the best examples of Islamic urban planning. He surrounded the meidan or square with covered bazaars, which were separated from a central market square by trees and water channels. The Shah's Mosque was built at the south end of the meidan. The city's central boulevard, lined by gardens and pleasure pavilions, ended in a vast garden rising in a series of 12 terraces. Other notable buildings in Isfahan include the Chehel Situn (`forty columns') - which was surrounded by formal gardens and four pavilions for the use of lovers - and the Mosque of Shaykh Lutfullah with its superb glazed tile work.
Early Persian influence
Romano-Byzantine influences gradually gave way to Persian ones with the fall of the Umayyads and the establishment of the Abbasid capital at Baghdad in 762. Baghdad was to be the embodiment of the palace-city with the caliph's palace at the heart of a concentric circular design.
Further up the Tigris the palace complex of Samarra was built in 836. With its Persian and even Chinese and Indian influences, Samarra saw the coming of age of Islamic art. It was famed both for its wall decorations - employing geometric and vegetal (plant and flower) motifs capable of infinite repetition - as well as for its walled courtyards, rectangular pools and canals bordered with flowers.
The flowering of art in Spain
The Umayyad dynasty founded in Spain in 756 developed the complex decorative traditions of Andalusia with the help of Christian converts to Islam. The Great Mosque of Crdoba was enlarged by stages, developing to a point where pillars, arches and walls were almost entirely covered with carving. The marvels of the Great Mosque of Seville, begun in 1172, were to be tragically replaced by a 15th-century cathedral. The concentration of Muslim Spain's intricate stucco tracery is best exemplified in the Alhambra palace at Granada.
The development of Cairo
Muslim urban planning evolved in the 10th century with the founding by the Fatimids of the city of Cairo, with its many gates and its new university mosque of Al-Azhar. Under the Fatimids originated the muqarnas or stalactite vault. Saladin, who succeeded the Fatimids, began construction of the citadel, one of Cairo's great medieval monuments. Persian influences were increasingly felt after the fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258, when its artisans sought refuge in Egypt, and Egypt's most imposing mosques were built by the Mamluk dynasty in the 14th and 15th centuries.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* INDIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* ISLAM (RELIGION)
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Islamic Art (page 4)
ftsTitle
Middle Eastern prayer rug from c. 1600.
Islamic Art (4 of 4)
The evolution of an Ottoman style
Architecture in Turkey was at first almost wholly influenced by Persian and Arab styles. But after the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453, Turkish architects were faced by the challenge of converting the great Byzantine church, the Hagia Sophia, into a mosque. It was in this conversion that a distinctly Ottoman style evolved: the great central dome is visually reflected by a series of half domes, and slim minarets are placed at each corner; courtyards are integral to the whole plan and, unlike Persian styles, facades are only slightly decorated. This style was to be repeated throughout the Ottoman domains. The greatest of Ottoman architects and a near contemporary of Michelangelo was Koca Sinan (1490/1-1588).
The great buildings of India
The development of Islamic art and architecture in India began with the first Muslim invaders in the 12th century, but it only reached its peak with the monumental buildings of the Moguls, who ruled from 1526. The Tomb of Humayun, the deserted city of Fatipur Sikri and the Taj Mahal and Pearl Mosque at Agra are but a few examples of a marvelous fusion of Central Asian, Ottoman and Safavid styles.
Modern Islamic art
While many Muslim countries have tried to preserve and even reconstruct traditional Islamic buildings, attempts have also been made to adapt modern styles to Islamic themes. Hasan Fathy's New Gourna village project in Upper Egypt in 1948 was an attempt at this, although the buildings of his fellow Egyptian Abd al-Wahid Wakil are a better example of contemporary Islamic architecture. Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states tend increasingly to use Islamic themes to enhance the cultural identity of their modern mega-buildings.
TMo
CERAMICS, TEXTILES AND METALWORK
The minor arts of Islam reached maturity under the Abbasids. In pottery the emphasis was on decoration rather than shape. In the Abbasid capitals of Baghdad and Samarra in the 9th century potters tried to imitate Chinese porcelains by covering buff-colored vessels of earthenware in a tin glaze. The use of color in glaze and underglaze decoration became a particular characteristic of Islamic pottery in general. Islamic potters were probably also responsible for inventing lustreware - pottery with an iridescent metallic surface.
The best surviving metalwork is Iranian silver dishes and ewers, but the dearth of silver in the 11th century made bronze and brass popular, while Iranian metalwork focused on courtly scenes, the Mamluks preferred heraldic statements.
The most important textiles are silks and carpets, the former usually for ceremonial use. The earliest surviving carpets are 13th-century Anatolian. Later carpets are best represented by vivid Safavid scenes of the 16th century. The splendor of color and intricate design of these carpets have never been surpassed. Islamic carpets were also used for wall hangings and as prayer rugs on which to kneel during devotion.
CALLIGRAPHY AND MINIATURE PAINTING
Calligraphy is in one sense the most important of the Islamic arts, since Muslims believe that God revealed himself in an Arabic book, the Qur'an (Koran), whose words therefore have a sacred character. The traditional Islamic ban on the representation of living figures directed Muslim artists towards ornamental styles based on plants and flowers, geometrical shapes, and actual Arabic script. In architecture this was reflected in peculiarly Islamic
styles such as the curvilinear arabesque. More important, however, was its influence on calligraphy, which became ornate and decorative, and by the 10th century, six classical scripts had emerged. Calligraphy in turn became closely associated with architecture, and - particularly in Spain and Persia - entire surfaces were often covered with verses from the Qur'an or with sayings of the Prophet.
An extension of calligraphy was book illustration. Initiated by the Mongol Il Khans in Persia, book illustration became the starting point of miniature painting. The miniature reached its peak under the Safavids in Persia and the Moguls in India.
and the Moguls in India.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* INDIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* ISLAM (RELIGION)
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (page 1)
ftsTitle
A 5th-century rock-face fresco at Sigirya, Sri Lanka.
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (1 of 4)
India's earliest civilization flourished in the Indus Valley between 2300-1700 BC and was centered on the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Its architecture is utilitarian, but some fine statues in sandstone and slate were produced. Little survives between the time of the Harappa civilization and that of the Mauryas (321-185 BC), during whose rule Persian and Greek influences are apparent, notably in architecture. In the early centuries of the Christian era India's already ancient culture began to influence the culture of Southeast Asia. By the 2nd century AD two-way trade extended as far as Indonesia, and Buddhist monks brought Indian culture to the region.
In contrast, the arts of Australia and Oceania reflect their comparative isolation. Australia itself was divided from New Guinea in about 5000 BC and, although many of the peoples of Oceania had common origins, distinctive cultures evolved in the different island groups of the Pacific.
Architecture in Southern Asia
One of the most distinctive Buddhist architectural forms is the stupa or burial mound - originally earthen, but later built of unburnt brick covered with burnt brick and plaster. The Sanchi stupa (2nd century BC) is one of the finest, although the Abhayagiri Dagaba stupa (2nd century AD) in Sri Lanka is larger. Stupas became increasingly ornate, as seen in the elaborate Sarnath and Nalanda stupas, the former dating from the Guptas (AD 300-647). One of the greatest monuments of Buddhist architecture is at Borobudur in Java. It was probably built during the dynasty of the Indian King Sailendra, who created an empire in the Malay peninsula, Sumatra and Java during the mid-8th century AD.
Another distinctive Indian architectural form is the man-made cave, first carved out at the time of the Mauryas. Among the most famous caves are those at Ajanta, near Hyderabad (2nd century BC-7th century AD) and the nearby Ellora caves (5th-8th centuries AD). Many regard Ellora's Kailasanatha Temple as India's greatest single architectural work.
Temples
The earliest known free-standing temple in India is a small one with a Buddhist stupa at Bairat near Jaipur. Greek influence is apparent in the later Fire Temple at Jandial (50 BC-AD 65) near Taksasila. Under the Guptas small wooden temples proliferated, and the most famous of these is the temple of Deogahr (6th century AD) near Jhansi. Subsequently wood gave way to stone or brick in the building of temples. The northern Indian style tended to be a tower with rounded top and curvilinear outline, while the Southern Indians preferred a tower shaped as a rectangular, truncated pyramid.
Meanwhile, the Hindu tradition extended into Cambodia where the first of the great temple-cities was built by Yasovarman (AD 889-9l0), although the famous city of Angkor, with its immense temple complex, was to be built in the l2th century. Burma's most famous temple, the temple of Ananda at Pagan, was first built by Indian Buddhist monks in the 11th-12th centuries and shows Bengali influence.
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (page 2)
ftsTitle
Australian Aboriginal bark painting of a skeletal fish, thought to be from the Arnhem Land in northern Australia.
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (2 of 4)
Sculpture in Southern Asia
After the decline of the Harappan civilization, it was not until that of the Mauryas that a revival of sculpture occurred. Under Ashoka, the great Mauryan king (272-232 BC), the capitals of columns were finely carved with figures such as tree spirits. Soon came the carvings on the railings and gateways of the great Buddhist sites at Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi (all 1st-2nd centuries BC). The gateways of Sanchi are massively adorned with teeming human and animal life. Indian sculpture peaked with the temples of Khajurao (c. AD 1000), which are covered with graceful divinities and pairs of lovers.
The realistic Buddhas of the Gandhara school, which peaked in the 2nd century AD, owed much to increasing trade with the West, when Rome's prosperity was at its height. However, some of the finest bronze Buddhas in the style of the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD are found in Sri Lanka, and others as far away as Dong Duong in Vietnam. Stone carving was also important in Sri Lanka; in the 12th century AD the 15-meter (50-ft) long Parinirvana statue of the sleeping Buddha was chiselled. Until the 6th century AD the Buddhas of Thailand were heavily influenced by the art of the Indian Guptas. As in pre-Khmer Cambodia, Indian missionaries imported Hindu as well as Buddhist ritual art into Thailand.
Painting in Southern Asia
Surviving painting from pre-Mogul India is restricted to the murals of certain cave temples. Of these the Buddhist `frescoes' in the Ajanta caves (see above) are among the most marvelous of any ancient civilization. Although painted for religious purposes, they are secular in style, and often erotic. A similar sensuality is found in the apsaras - figures of women - painted on Sri Lanka's great Sigiriya rock. With the spread of Islamic influence Indian painters turned to miniatures and book illustration in the Persian style.
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* INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA
* BUDDHISM
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ftsTitleOverride
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (page 3)
ftsTitle
Sculpted erotic figures on the facade of the Lakshmana Temple, Khajurao, India, c. 950.
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (3 of 4)
Australia
When Europeans arrived in Australia its natives knew nothing of pottery or metal work. However, in l839 cave paintings representing men and women in a naturalistic way were discovered along the Glenelg River in southeast Australia. Similarly naturalistic paintings, the most famous of which depicts a man with a halo carrying a kangaroo, were found in northwest Australia.
Later, more abstract paintings were found in the Warramunga district of central Australia. These consisted of circles and straight lines in brown and white. Such symbols had their own meanings, the concentric rings indicating resting places and the connecting lines tracks, for example. Various materials were used, the Australian Aborigines often making thumb-nail drawings on smoke-blackened bark or painting with ochre or clay on the walls of caves.
Melanesia
Melanesia, northeast of Australia, boasts some of the region's richest works of art. Here, influences from Malaya and New Guinea led to a flourishing of the decorative arts. In parts of Melanesia every household utensil and every tool was decorated. Soot drawings on bark represent wood demons and other magic creatures. Totemism - the belief in the kinship of groups, symbolized by a common totem such as a species of plant or animal - was strong in Melanesia, and many objects made by the Melanesians serve as such totems. Popular ancestral figures included the `Uli' - statues with huge heads, small bodies and tiny legs. Indian sculpture, brought by Indian merchants, was later to influence this region. Some Chinese influences have also been noted.
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (page 4)
ftsTitle
The Easter Island heads are carved from a soft volcanic stone; some of the statues weigh over 50 tons.
The Arts of Southern Asia, Australasia and Oceania (4 of 4)
Polynesia
Polynesia (the many islands) extends from Hawaii to New Zealand and Easter Island. Under the pressure of the Mongoloid races the Polynesians left Asia from 1000 BC onwards. Skilled sailors, they created networks of communication among the islands. Life was regulated by the positive force called mana and the negative force called tapu (taboo). The artisans belonged to the priest caste, were considered to possess mana and had the monopoly of canoe-building and religious carving. They were, indeed, among the greatest wood-carvers of all time. In the Austral Islands they carved with light incisions, while the Maoris made tattoo-like patterns. Each island had its own style. Wood and stone were the only materials used until the Europeans brought metal. However, the arts of bark painting, plaiting, weaving, tattooing and the making of articles of personal adornment reached a great degree of perfection, particularly in New Zealand and in Samoa.
THE EASTER ISLAND HEADS
The Easter Island heads are carved from a soft volcanic stone; some of the statues weigh over 50 tons.
When the Dutch landed on Easter Island in l722, they discovered over 500 gigantic stone carvings of men's heads, between 3 and 12 m (10 and 40 ft) high. However, when the Dutch enslaved the Polynesian people in l862, they slaughtered its kings and priests and were consequently unable to decipher the inscriptions on wooden tablets that they discovered. Recent research has shown that the statues - thought to be cult objects (possibly deifications of dead people) - were erected between ad 1000 and 1600. The fact that there are many unfinished and toppled statues on the island indicates that the cult was ended suddenly by a brutal civil war. Some traditions record such a war, in which the Short Ears' overthrew their warlords, the Long Ears', together with their statues.
* INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA
* BUDDHISM
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Chinese and Japanese Art (page 1)
ftsTitle
A Chinese scroll painting from the Yuan period: Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains (1350) by Huang Gongwang. (National Palace Museum,Taiwan/E.T. Archive)
Chinese and Japanese Art (1 of 4)
China is the longest surviving civilization in the world, with an art history stretching back at least 4000 years. Because it was the most advanced country in Eastern Asia, China influenced many of its neighbors and later the Islamic world and Western Europe. The distinctiveness of Chinese art has been complemented by very high technical skills, and for many centuries ceramics, bronzes, jade carvings, silk and lacquer were produced at standards surpassing all other cultures.
Japanese art has throughout its history borrowed inspiration and techniques from its big neighbor China. The introduction of Buddhism in the 6th century, in particular, exerted a considerable influence. However, different requirements and technical skills in Japan resulted in a creative originality distinct from that of China. Japanese color prints and pottery, which were influenced by Western culture in the 19th century, have in turn been an important influence on 19th- and 20th-century Western art.
Pre-imperial culture
During China's Neolithic period, painted pottery was the principal artifact made. In the Shang and Zhou dynasties (1480 BC - 221 BC) very sophisticated bronze vessels, regarded as some of the finest ever produced, were manufactured. Ritual carvings reveal the Chinese reverence for jade, the other important medium in this early culture.
Early empire
In the Chinese Qin and Han dynasties (221 BC - AD 220) ceramic tomb sculptures featuring servant figures provided for the afterlife of the dead - in place of the earlier practice of human sacrifice. Mythical creatures of sculpted stone line the routes to the tombs. In Xian, the Qin capital, thousands of life-sized terracotta warriors and horses demonstrating great technical skill have been excavated. Buildings were often decorated with murals, and lacquer became an important industry. Silk weaving developed and lead glazes were applied to pottery. The introduction of Buddhism into China from India in the 1st century AD brought a demand for religious art. Temple architecture flourished and sculptured Buddhist images of stone, marble and gilt bronze were made. By the 6th century the style had evolved from Indian to characteristically Chinese.
cteristically Chinese.
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* BUDDHISM
* RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Chinese and Japanese Art (page 2)
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Chinese and Japanese Art (2 of 4)
Middle empire
The Tang dynasty (AD 618-907) was a golden age for Chinese art. Buddhist sculpture was made on a monumental scale. Jewelry and metalworking in gold show foreign influences. Tomb figures and other pottery are often decorated with a three-color glaze. The invention of porcelain (about 1000 years be fore its discovery in Europe) meant that ceramics became highly prized abroad. To the Chinese, calligraphy - the art of handwriting - and painting have always been the most important of the arts. They share the same materials (brush, ink and paper) and format - often long hand scrolls and tall hanging scrolls. Figure painting now reached a peak, and landscape painting emerged as an important genre.
In the Song dynasty (960-1279) calligraphy became more individualistic. Song landscape paintings portray angular mountains and gnarled trees, with mists enhancing the effect of distance. Human figures are reduced to a minute scale to indicate their relative unimportance. Chan Buddhist-inspired painting, with its wildly splashed, impressionistic ink effects, was particularly admired in Japan. Song ceramics reached a peak of perfection in technique and design.
In the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) some painters reverted to archaic styles and the human figure became more important. In ceramics underglaze painting (pigments applied before the glaze) in red and blue and overglaze painting (applied after the glaze) in enamels were introduced. The art of carving red lacquer was developed. The Mongols also inspired much Buddhist sculpture.
The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) rebuilt Peking, now known as Beijing, and many of the city's monuments date from this period. Ceramics were concentrated in huge industrial complexes at Jingdezhen, where the famous blue and white and other wares were produced under imperial supervision. Reign marks were now first used and decoration using many different colors was developed. Lacquer work was inlaid with different colored lacquers and mother-of-pearl. Cloisonne enameling - in which a wire outline is filled in with colored enamels - and miniature works in glass, jade and ivory were also produced.
Japanese bronze sculpture with gold lacquering. Made in the late 19th century, it depicts a samurai on the attack.
Chinese and Japanese Art (3 of 4)
End of empire
From the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) technical perfection began to take precedence over innovation. Some Qing artists painted in a traditional style reinterpreting Song and Yuan landscapes. Enameled porcelain was popular and much exported to Europe. After 1949, the emphasis has seemed to be more on mass production than artistic inspiration. However, there is a revival of interesting painting, with artists inspired by their own past culture as well as being influenced by Western techniques of perspective. Many artists today are government supported.
Chinese architecture
Most Chinese public buildings were made of wood on a stone foundation and had tiled roofs with upturned edges. The roofs were supported by wooden columns connected to the ceiling beams by wooden brackets. Buildings were often designed around a central courtyard and their settings were considered important. Most buildings were one story, but there were also many-storied towers called pagodas, a notable feature of Chinese architecture.
Early Japan
Amongst the earliest artistic finds in Japan are ceramics with intricate patterns of raised lines, tomb figures of clay and engraved bronze bells.
The introduction of Buddhism brought to Japan not only religion but the influence of Chinese civilization. It was an important impetus in Japanese art as it stimulated demand for temples, paintings and images. During the Nara period (710-784) the capital was built on a grand scale with wooden temples and fine bronze sculpture. Buddhist art, particularly sculpture in wood, began to take on a more Japanese character.
Imperial Japan
In the Heian period (794-1185) Buddhist sculptured figures possess an elegance and mysticism more characteristically Japanese than Chinese. A Japanese school of scroll painting combining decorative and narrative features now developed.
Hokusai's The Wave, an Ukiyo-e print from the Edo period.
Chinese and Japanese Art (4 of 4)
Feudal Japan
In the Kamakura period (1185-1392) the Samurai (knightly caste) dominated the arts, as it did politics. Wooden sculpture was more realistic, and Buddhist paintings more emotionally expressive. Horizontal scroll paintings depict historical tales and legends in an animated style with few Chinese precedents.
Despite incessant clan warfare in the Muromachi period (1333-1568) the arts flourished. Zen Buddhism with its emphasis on the natural and unadorned influenced all the arts including the landscaping of gardens, architecture and the austere pottery utensils of the tea ceremony. Zen paintings favored the ink style using few brush strokes that had also been popular in China.
The Momoyama period (1568-1614) was a luxurious age when art became more secularized and new styles were introduced. The demands of the warlords and the rising middle classes resulted in lacquer ware, ceramics and textiles of this period being famous for the brilliance of their design and technical perfection. Use of gold and silver leaf reveals the love for sumptuousness that somehow coexisted with the restrained and understated style typical of the tea ceremony's pottery utensils.
Tokugawa Japan
The Ukiyo-e prints (pictures of the floating world) of the Edo period (1615-1868) were produced by artists such as Hokusai and Utamaro. They drew their subject matter from the entertainment life of Edo (modern Tokyo), depicting the courtesans and actors of the time. This popular art was mass-produced in colored wood block prints, and print-making flourished throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. These prints were very influential on post-impressionist painters of the West. Sculptural art was now often directed towards miniatures such as netsuke carving - ornamental toggles used to fasten purses or tobacco pouches to garments - but lacquer ware, often decorated with gold dust, flourished as did ceramics. By the late 19th century European influence began to transform Japanese art and many of its native traditions had exhausted themselves.
Japanese architecture
Most Japanese buildings were of wood and therefore ancient buildings have not survived, though the more important monuments have been rebuilt several times. Many architectural monuments are Buddhist temples which have tiled roofs with upturned edges. Japanese architecture tends to emphasize the harmony between buildings and the natural beauty around them, and is closely linked to landscape gardening, which has long been a highly developed art in Japan. The interiors of houses have always been very simple and adaptable, with sliding screens for walls and doors.
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* BUDDHISM
* RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Native American and African Art (page 1)
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The Mayan pyramid of Kukulcan (10th-12th century) in Yucatan. Named El Castillo' by the Spanish, it is crowned by a temple dedicated to Quetzalcoatl. In the foreground is a corridor of 1000 columns bordering the Temple of the Warriors.
Native American and African Art (1 of 3)
The greatest architecture and stone sculpture of the Americas is divided between the ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Central Andes. Before and after the arrival of Europeans, tribal North America excelled in wooden sculpture, textiles and pottery.
African art, excluding the products of Egypt and the Muslim north, is concentrated in the rain forests and savannah woodland of central western Africa. Far to the north and south lies the ancient rock art of the Sahara and southern Africa.
The early civilizations of the Americas
The Chavin culture, which spread over much of Peru between about 1000 and 200 BC, is named after a temple complex at Chavin de Huantar. Inside the complex the essentially graphic nature of Chavin sculpture can be seen in the outline of a semi-feline figure, sprouting snakes in stead of hair, incised on a large block of granite. Chavin pottery similarly blends animal and human elements, and this cultural trait is paralleled in the man-jaguar and other motifs engraved on stelae (stone columns) and jade objects by the Mesoamerican Olmecs (1500-600 BC).
The Olmecs also sculpted dynamic and naturalistic three-dimensional figures, but their most famous works are colossal human heads (1.5-2.8 m / 5-9 ft high) with thick lips and flattened noses. Four of these occur at the site of La Venta, which is also strewn with carved stelae and altars. The platforms and courtyards of La Venta, dominated by a clay pyramid, form an early example of a planned ceremonial center.
The `Classic' art of Mesoamerica
The construction of religious complexes reached an early climax in the huge pyramids and regular avenues of imperial Teotihuacan, Central Mexico (c. AD 100-600). The Temple of Quetzalcoatl is an impressive combination of sculpture and architecture; out of the vertical facings of each platform juts a series of serpents' heads, alternating with a series of geometric faces with circular staring eyes.
This severe style, seen again in the schematic statue of a water deity found near the Pyramid of the Moon, is somewhat tempered in the florid wall-paintings. A mural in the palace of Tepantitla shows people playing and catching butterflies while a central figure weeps and the Rain God sprinkles the scene with water from above.
In the southeast of Mesoamerica lie the ceremonial centers of the Maya (c. AD 100-1000). These are loosely arranged collections of platformed single-story `palaces', plazas with carved stelae and altars, and tall, slender pyramids. On top of the pyramids are temples capped with `roof-combs', and both these and the palaces are decorated with low reliefs of painted stucco and stone.
Mayan reliefs often combine lively, richly dressed human figures with complex hieroglyphic motifs. The elaborate, al-most `baroque' Mayan style is also apparent in the rare wall-paintings at Bonampak (c. AD 800). These illustrate a battle, prisoners-of-war having their fingernails torn out, and victory celebrations. Mayan sculpture is not often three-dimensional, but striking pottery figurines were manufactured on the island of Jaina. A few of these depict spirits, but most seem to portray earthly figures such as dancers and priests wearing head-dresses.
head-dresses.
* AFRICA, AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
The fundamentally naturalistic art of the Mochica people of the Andean region (c. 200 BC-AD 800) is perfectly expressed in their pottery vessels. Some of these are painted with vivid scenes of everyday life, religious rituals or warfare. Others consist of a molded human face with a handle attached to the top of the head; many of the faces are so realistic and individual that they seem to be actual portraits.
In contrast, the pottery of the adjacent Nazca culture (c. 200 BC-AD 700) is characterized by stylized designs and bold colors. The pottery motifs are echoed in the exquisite Nazca textiles, and some, such as the owl and spider, appear again among the famous `Nazca lines' in the Palpa Valley region. These were created by scraping the weathered desert surface to reveal lighter clay below, and thus outlining huge geometric patterns, birds and animals.
Aztec and Inca art
The great Mesoamerican tradition that began at Teotihuacan flowed through the succeeding Toltec and Mixtec civilizations and culminated in the art and religion of the Aztec Empire (c. 1420-1519). Perhaps the Aztec love of war and sacrifice accounts for the terrifying statue of Coatlicue, Goddess of Earth and Fertility, found at Tenochtitlan. The face of the goddess is replaced by two serpent heads, her chest is covered with amputated hands and hearts, and writhing snakes form a skirt beneath a staring death head. More delicate and naturalistic sculpture was also produced together with mosaics, jewelry and sophisticated featherwork, revealing the complexity of Aztec culture.
The expansion of the Inca Empire from 1440 in the Andean region paralleled the rise of the Aztecs. Inca pottery and metal-work is sophisticated but standardized; the most impressive products of the Incas are their palaces and fortresses built of huge stones.
North America
The Inuit (Eskimos) of the extreme north fashion bone, driftwood and ivory into miniature figures of men, seals, polar bears and other Arctic animals. On a more massive scale, the Indians of the northwest coast traditionally carved totem poles depicting chiefs, spirits and animals. In the same region dancers still wear brightly painted masks and elaborate costumes during rituals. The southern Kwagiutl people create dramatic masks of cannibal birds with hooked beaks and shredded cedar bark hair.
All over the continent animals skins were intricately decorated; the Plains Indians painted buffalo hides with hunting scenes. To the west the Indians of Oregon and California embellished their fine basketry with geometric and animal motifs. Further south the colorful textiles of the Navajo also combine geometric and pictorial motifs (such as horses and birds). A similar tension between depiction and abstraction can be traced in the brilliantly colored pottery of the Pueblo Indians.
* AFRICA, AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: MODERN TIMES
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A Shaman mask from the North American Indians c. 1840-60.
Native American and African Art (3 of 3)
African rock art
The earliest paintings and engravings in the Sahara may date from c. 6000 BC, and depict giant masked figures, hunters and animals now extinct in the area such as hippopotamuses and buffalo. Later, less naturalistic works chart the introduction of cattle and chariots pulled by horses. The smallest and most schematic paintings reveal present-day fauna such as camels.
The San (Bushman) rock art of South Africa and Namibia may be even more ancient. The tradition continued into the 19th century ad, and some paintings show San fighting Bantu and Europeans. Many works depict the graceful eland, a type of antelope central to San mythology; recent research among surviving San groups suggests that the numerous elaborate dancing scenes illustrate magical trance ceremonies.
The African kingdoms
The earliest known sculptural tradition of sub-Saharan Africa emerged c. 500 BC in northern Nigeria. Its products are grouped together as the Nok culture', and consist of naturalistic terracottas of animals and more stylized terracottas of human figures; the figures often have simplified bodies, disproportionately large heads and distinctive eyes.
Nok sculpture may have influenced the art of the Kingdom of Ife in southwest Nigeria (c. ad 1100-1600). The Ife terracottas and bronzes are in the form of realistic, if idealized, heads and figures, some of which may portray local rulers. The famous bronzes of the kingdom of Benin (1500-1700) similarly depict full figures and heads, but include plaques decorated in high and low relief with scenes of warriors, chiefs and Portuguese traders.
African architecture
The Benin bronze plaques also illustrate the local architecture, revealing major palace structures with tall central towers. These towers were surmounted by large cast-bronze birds, and long bronze pythons were draped down the tower roofs. West African architecture relies principally on wood and mud, often used in a strikingly sculptural manner. The smooth surfaces of major buildings, such as the pyramidal tower of the early 14th-century mosque at Timbuktu, are often spiked with wooden beams used for maintenance. Africa also possesses monumental stone architecture, notably at the site of Zimbabwe (c. 1400-1800). Here a massive, roughly circular wall 9 m (30 ft) high surrounds various other dry-stone structures, including a tall conical tower. Throughout much of Africa huts are made of interlaced sticks, mud and thatch. Many great buildings were also made of ephemeral materials, such as the barrel-vaulted halls (up to 30 m / 98 ft long) constructed out of wood, rafia stems and grass in the 19th-century Mangbetu kingdom, Zaire.
Wooden sculpture and masks
Carved wooden masks and sculptures have come to typify African art. Although many of the most famous works were collected in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the tradition is very ancient and persists in certain regions even today.
Western artists such as Picasso were greatly influenced by African sculpture, believing it to be free of the constraints of naturalism or realism. This is only partly true, and even the most schematic styles possess strong conventions of their own.
Both masks and figures tend to face forward and to be symmetrically arranged around a vertical axis. Figures are usually carved from a single piece of wood, while masks are often embellished with beads, feathers, hair or fiber. The dance masks of the Bakuba of central Africa are particularly elaborate. Sometimes masks and figures are combined, as in the Yoruba epa mask which is crowned with a vividly painted sculptural superstructure up to 2 m (7 ft) high.
Both figures and masks were created for specific occasions, such as initiation and healing rites, or to communicate with spirits. Many figures, like those in the elegantly stylized tradition of the Dogon and Bambara of Mali, form part of an ancestor cult.
* AFRICA, AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
Byzantine mosaic from inside the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. It typifies the stylized Byzantine approach to the depiction of the human figure.
@ ! Early Medieval and Byzantine Art (1 of 4)
The period between the Classical Age and the Renaissance has sometimes been described dismissively as the `Dark Ages'. This is both inaccurate and misleading. These centuries formed an essential artistic bridgehead, when new approaches to pictorial form were worked out and deeper spiritual values attached to works of art. The major patron became the Christian Church, and most of the greatest monuments are related to churches and monasteries. Before the break-up of the Roman Empire, Christianity had already established itself at the heart of civilized society in Europe. The art of the early Christians is, therefore, a branch of late Roman art. From a stylistic point of view, and in terms of some of its subject matter, this art at first very much resembled its pagan counterpart.
Because Christians were initially persecuted, the earliest Christian symbols in the catacomb paintings of Rome and on 3rd- and 4th-century sarcophagi are all conveniently neutral: the Good Shepherd, philosophers, and orant (praying) figures abound. Only in the 4th and 5th centuries did a specifically Christian iconography (a vocabulary of images) develop, and scenes from the Old and New Testaments of the Bible became widespread on the walls of churches and in illuminated manuscripts. The move away from Classical naturalism, already evident in late Roman art, was hastened as more emphasis was given to story-telling and simple iconic images.
Early Christian architecture
The first Christian buildings were simply houses that served as meeting places for the faithful. But soon larger churches were needed. The earliest grand churches in Rome took the form of the basilica - a single nave with a lower aisle on each side and an apse at the end. The largest of these required transepts (wings) for the increasing congregations and this form of church changed remarkably little until the Gothic period. Circular Christian buildings - martyria (martyr's churches) and baptisteries (places where baptisms took place) - were also derived from earlier pagan mausoleums and baths. The vast expanse of wall provided by the basilicas - above the nave arcade and in the apse - was the ideal space for pictorial decoration: all of these major early churches were painted or covered in mosaic pictures.
With the demise of the Roman Empire in the West, the power base shifted to the East, to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium). From the 5th century the Byzantine emperors provided lavish patronage for artists and architects. As a result brilliant innovations took place, in architecture especially, as the Byzantines experimented with the circular church plan and developed the domed basilica. The outstanding example of the latter is Hagia Sophia at Constantinople (now Istanbul), built in the 6th century under the great emperor Justinian. Much of the mosaic decoration in the church is now covered over, but some idea of its former richness is conveyed by the nearly contemporary mosaics in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna. The history of art in the Byzantine world is complicated, however, and there was often strong and concerted opposition to imagery; this culminated in a period of iconoclasm (726-843), when all representations of people in religious art were banned in the East.
The spread of Byzantine art
From the 9th century through to the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, Byzantine art and architecture is notable for its continuity. Right across the Empire - from southern Italy to Armenia - there was a remarkable similarity of style. Typically Byzantine domed church buildings with fresco cycles are still numerous in Greece and Yugoslavia. The Byzantine style of decoration spread outwards to neighboring regions, so that similar schemes of mosaic decoration may be seen, for example, in Venice (St Mark's) and Sicily (Cefalu, Monreale and Palermo).
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* THE INVASIONS
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
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Early Medieval and Byzantine Art (page 3)
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The interior of Hagia Sophia, the great Byzantine cathedral of Constantinople. With the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the cathedral became a mosque, and the name of the city was changed to Istanbul.
Early Medieval and Byzantine Art (3 of 4)
Anglo-Saxon art
In the West, the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century brought fragmentation and a power vacuum. The barbarian tribes overran Europe, producing a cultural climate hardly conducive to ambitious church building. The products of these (largely nomadic) civilizations are mostly portable, and the jewelry produced by them clearly shows links with a Celtic past. The Anglo-Saxons excelled at abstract, highly patterned ornament (often involving interlace designs), and the masterpieces of their art - such as the Lindisfarne Gospels - stand comparison with the most sophisticated products of any civilization. The stone high crosses found in the British Isles are rare examples of large-scale sculpture before the Romanesque period.
Carolingian art
Charlemagne, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in the year 800, consciously evoked the grandeur and learning of Rome at his court at Aachen. For his Palace Chapel there he closely followed Late Antique prototypes, and even re-used Roman building materials. Sumptuous manuscripts were produced, many with beautifully carved book-covers of ivory and jewels. Largely through the efforts of the Carolingians and Byzantines the Classical heritage, both in literature and the visual arts, was preserved for later ages.
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* THE INVASIONS
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
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Early Medieval and Byzantine Art (page 4)
ftsTitle
Durham Cathedral, started in 1093, is possibly the finest example of Romanesque architecture in England. The Romanesque style became popular following the Norman invasion of 1066, and hence is known in England as Norman'.
Early Medieval and Byzantine Art (4 of 4)
Romanesque
In the decades following the year 1000 (the year prophesied by many as the end of the world) a huge increase in church building took place. A contemporary chronicler described Europe at that time as `clothing itself everywhere in a white robe of churches'. These new churches swept away the older, smaller structures, and over the years new building techniques developed, such as the barrel-and-rib vault, the latter seen for the first time at Durham Cathedral in northern England.
The term `Romanesque' for the art of the 11th and 12th centuries was first used in the early 19th century because many of the greatest churches of the period have a grandeur unmatched since Roman times, and because one of the recurring features of the architecture is the rounded Classical arch. In England this style has often been referred to as `Norman', as it first emerged at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066).
The Romanesque style was disseminated throughout Europe quickly because of the network of related monasteries ruled over by single great houses. The most influential of these was Cluny in Burgundy, under whose rule were 2000 monasteries served by 10 000 monks. The rise in popularity of pilgrimages to holy sites also meant that new innovations in the arts at any one center were rapidly picked up and passed on. Although regional variations did occur, there is thus a certain uniformity of style that is instantly recognizable. An especially popular decorative device - found in sculpture, metalwork and manuscript illumination - is the inhabited scroll, where men and animals are found amongst foliage.
The art of large-scale sculpture was revived during the Romanesque period to decorate the inside and outside of the new churches. Special attention was paid to the embellishment of capitals surmounting columns and to doorways - the tympanum (the semicircular space between the door and the arch) was usually elaborately carved, often with a figure of Christ in Majesty.
Giotto's painting of the nativity from the Birth of Christ fresco at Assisi. The grandeur of the simple figures within a setting of bare essentials dramatically tells a story and concentrates on human feeling. Giotto's break from the Byzantine tradition was a major influence on other painters.
Gothic Painting and Sculpture (1 of 5)
Gothic painting and sculpture flourished alongside architecture. The Romanesque world of fantastic beasts is largely left behind and a new emphasis is placed on nature and humanity's place within its hierarchy. This is shown in a more human relationship between God and the individual and the expression of human emotions. There are obvious stylistic variations in treatment over the period and in different regions, but Gothic art is often characterized by elegant, sometimes elongated figures, decorative surface treatment, and an attention to detail.
Cranach's The Unsuitable Pair (1531). The theme of the ill-matched couple was a popular one in northern Europe at the time.
Gothic Painting and Sculpture (2 of 5)Architectural sculpture
Gothic figure sculpture became more naturalistic and less dependent on its architectural support as time progressed. The early French column figures, as at the Royal Portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1150), were contained within the shape of the column. The extreme elongation of the figures and narrow, parallel folds of drapery produce an unnatural elegance. By the mid-13th century, at Rheims Cathedral, the sculptures of the Visitation and Annunciation groups (c. 1224-45) are well proportioned and the drapery is used to create a greater sense of form as the figures appear to move freely in front of the columns.
In Germany too, naturalism was accentuated by an expression of contemplation in the faces, as seen in two examples of secular figures in cathedrals, the Rider at Bamberg (mid-13th century) and Ekkehard and Uta at Naumberg (c. 1250-60). Most medieval sculptures were originally painted, making them even more realistic.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* EARLY MEDIEVAL AND BYZANTINE ART
* GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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Gothic Painting and Sculpture (page 3)
ftsTitle
Simone's Annunciation (left) (1333) was painted in collaboration with his brother-in-law Memmi. It was his last major work in Italy. (Uffizi, Florence/Archiv fer Kunst)
@ @ Gothic Painting and Sculpture (3 of 5)
Architectural Italian Gothic
Towards the end of the 13th century the anatomical realism of classical sculpture was taken up by the Pisan sculptor Nicola Pisano (active 1258-84) who, with his assistant, the Florentine Arnolfo di Cambio (active 1265-1300), began the move into the realm of the Gothic. However, it was in the hands of Nicola's son, Giovanni Pisano (active 1265-1314) that the style blossomed, especially on his pulpit in S Andrea, Pistoia (1301), where a wealth of human emotions are expressed. In the panel of the Massacre of the Innocents the anguish of the mothers is visible both on their faces and in their exaggerated postures.
Beneath the drapery the human form is clearly delineated. This sculptural approach was paralleled in the works of the painters, particularly the Florentine Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267-1337). The first attempts at this type of realism are apparent in the Sta Trinita Madonna (Florence, Uffizi, c. 1280), attributed to an earlier Florentine, Cimabue (active 1272-1302), although the artist still produces the iconic image of his Byzantine predecessors. It is dramatically developed by Giotto in the Ognissanti Madonna (Florence, Uffizi, c. 1310-15) with its solid figures, more convincingly set into space, but even Giotto retains the traditional gold background. In contrast, the early work of the Sienese painter Duccio di Boninsegna (active 1278-1319) concentrates on a two-dimensional decorative surface treatment which was to continue in Sienese art.
However, other concerns often governed an artist's approach - the need to produce a clear narrative, for example. In the frescoes of the Arena Chapel (Padua, 1304-13), Giotto's figures are mainly ranged along the front of the picture plane, and this, while unnaturalistic, assists in the story-telling. On the back of Duccio's majestic Maesta (Siena, Opera del Duomo, 1308-11), the artist uses a unity of setting in many of the scenes (treated here in a more convincing spacial arrangement), and individual characters are distinguished by different colors.
During this period the identity of artists became more publicly known and their status increased. Giovanni Pisano included a self-laudatory inscription on the Pistoia pulpit to ensure his name was known, and Giotto was mentioned by both Petrarch and Dante.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* EARLY MEDIEVAL AND BYZANTINE ART
* GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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ftsTitleOverride
Gothic Painting and Sculpture (page 4)
ftsTitle
Andrea Pisano's relief sculpture of The Last Rights (1334-40) from the cycle of reliefs depicting the Sacraments inside the dome of Florence Cathedral.
Gothic Painting and Sculpture (4 of 5)
The importance of the patrons and their requirements must also not be overlooked. Major decorative schemes were commissioned by the Church, the guilds, wealthy individuals and city governments. An especially important project was the decoration of the double church of S Francesco at Assisi where virtually all the painters of note, from Cimabueto the Lorenzetti (see below), were employed. Among them was the Sienese Simone Martini (active 1315-44), whose linear rhythms, sensitive use of color and graceful figure style create a spirituality that obviously appealed to many different types of patron. These qualities were evident in his Maesta at Siena Town Hall (1315) and the S Martin Chapel frescoes at Assisi (1320-?30), but more particularly in his panel painting.
The Sienese painters Ambrogio and Pietro Lorenzetti (active c. 1319-48) produced works which marry Sienese tradition with sculptural, Giottesque form. Their expression of emotion clearly illustrates Gothic humanism and especially the close mother-and-child relationship in, for example, Ambrogio's Madonna del Latte (c. mid-1320s). The Lorenzetti both seem to have perished in the Black Death of 1348, which set back artistic development in the second half of the century.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* EARLY MEDIEVAL AND BYZANTINE ART
* GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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ftsTitleOverride
Gothic Painting and Sculpture (page 5)
ftsTitle
The miniature paintings of the Tres Riches Heures by the Limbourg Brothers illustrate each month with a scene of peasants at work or noblemen at leisure; naturalistic detail is combined with an elegant style probably influenced by Italian art. (Musee Conde, Chantilly/Archiv fer Kunst)
Gothic Painting and Sculpture (5 of 5)
Architectural International Gothic
At the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century a new development in art, aptly known as International Gothic, combined the French court style, Sienese tradition and Central European features. It is characterized by a preciousness and delicacy of handling, and attention to detail, particularly evident in the Tres Riches Heures of the Limbourg Brothers (see above). It is also seen in the monumental figures of the Flemish sculptor Claus Sluter (active c. 1380- d. 1405/6) at the Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon (1390s-1403), in which the use of naturalistic facial expression and swaying drapery is typical of the style.
In Italy International Gothic existed alongside the growing development of Renaissance classicism. The bronze doors of the Baptistery in Florence, begun by Ghiberti in 1403, retain a Gothicism in figure style and layout while demonstrating a greater awareness of the antique.
The influential Adoration of the Magi (Florence, Uffizi, 1423) by the Venetian painter Gentile da Fabriano (c. 1370-1427) displays a clear knowledge of Simone Martini's figure style. This painting appears to be have been used as a model by Lorenzo Monaco (c. 1370/2-1422/5) for his Adoration (Florence, Uffizi, c. 1424). The combination of linear contours and colorist in his elongated figures betrays his Sienese background.
A close relationship can also be seen between International Gothic painting and tapestries, which were produced mainly in Flanders and were highly prized. This is especially clear in the work of the Veronese Antonio Pisanello (c. 1395-1455/6), in paintings such as the Vision of St Eustace (London, National Gallery, 1435-38), where the subject is treated in a largely two-dimensional way, with detailed plant and animal life dotted about the surface.
MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION
Small-scale sculptures and manuscripts were produced in large numbers to satisfy both liturgical needs and the personal contemplation of individual worshippers. Manuscripts were often richly decorated, and examples include the Belleville Breviary, which is believed to have been illuminated by Jean Pucelle (active early 14th century) in Paris before 1343. Pucelle's delicate and sensitive figure style displays a knowledge of Sienese painting (see below). The beautifully painted plant and animal life in the margins (unrelated to the religious function of the manuscript) illustrate the detailed naturalism which later became a feature of International Gothic (see below).
At the beginning of the following century the Limbourg Brothers (Paul, Jean and Herman; d. c. 1416) began probably the most famous Gothic manuscript, the Trs Riches Heures of the Duc de Berry. The calendar is illustrated with scenes from everyday life; the figures are simply set out, but the landscapes contain naturalistic and fantastic elements, both earthly and spiritual.
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Gothic Architecture (page 1)
ftsTitle
Gothic Architecture (1 of 4)
The Gothic style emerged in the 12th century and survived in some areas of Northern Europe until the 16th. In Italy it was largely superseded by the Renaissance at the beginning of the 15th century. The term `Gothic' was first applied to architecture, and it was architectural forms that were to dominate the art of the period.
In Gothic architecture a transcendental quality is evoked by pointed arches, vaulted ceilings, and an emphasis on light through large pointed windows, frequently decorated with stained glass. As the style developed, many of the functional elements were elaborated to create densely decorative forms.
The Gothic cathedral
The first features that can be recognized as Gothic appeared in France at St Denis (near Paris) as early as the 1140s. A sculptured triple portal (doorway) with twin square towers - only one of which was completed - was built under Abbot Suger, and a new choir and ambulatory (aisle running behind the altar) with radiating chapels were added to accommodate the vast number of pilgrims who visited the shrine of St Denis. The style was immediately developed in several northern French cathedrals, notably Chartres (c. 1140-50).
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* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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Gothic Architecture (page 2)
ftsTitle
English Gothic Styles
English Gothic is generally divided into three stylistic periods and, like High Gothic in France, these characterized by their window styles.
Early English lasted c. 1190-1250 and tall lancet windows without tracery are typical. This was succeeded by Decorated, c. 1250-c. 1360, characterized by the ogee arch (appearing in doorways and windows) and decorated wall surfaces. During this period window tracery changed from geometric to flowing. Finally came Perpendicular, c. 1330 - c. 1550, which, as its name implies, emphasized vertical features. The mullions continue through the tracery to the full height of the window.
Gothic Architecture (2 of 4)
The development of the ribbed vault from its early beginnings at Durham (1093) had enabled stone vaults to be erected, thus increasing the height of the roof while reducing the risk of fire, which had proved a major problem with earlier wooden ceilings. More elaborate and decorative vaulting systems were to follow, such as lierne vaults (Salisbury, crossing tower, 15th century) and fan vaults (Gloucester, cloisters, late 14th century; and Henry VII chapel, Westminster, early 16th century). Bosses covered the joins of the ribs and were carved with foliage or figurative scenes.
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Gothic Architecture (page 3)
ftsTitle
GillSans Bold;Gothic Architecture (3 of 4)
The desire to create light interiors (on stained glass) led to dramatic developments in construction. Large areas of wall surface were replaced by windows, and the thick walls with passages typical of the Romanesque were replaced with thin walls. Although much lighter, the walls still required support and flying buttresses were sometimes added to the exterior of the building, as at Notre Dame, Paris (about 1180).
With its tall pointed arcades, the interior of the Gothic church was elegant, light and uncluttered by heavy structural features. It was therefore possible to pursue a love of decoration at every opportunity. Blind arcading (walled-up windows) was added to wall surfaces, the stone tracery in windows became florid, and elaborate pinnacles were added to gables.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
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p522-4
ftsTitleOverride
Gothic Architecture (page 4)
ftsTitle
Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral.
GillSans Bold;Gothic Architecture (4 of 4)
The multiplication of architectural forms was also common. Additional side aisles were added (Bourges, late 13th century; and Milan, late 14th century) and double transepts were built (Salisbury, early 13th century). The three-story Romanesque and early Gothic elevation was occasionally increased to four (Laon, late 12th / early 13th century). This illustrates the French preference for height, whereas in England the emphasis is much more on length. Despite its elegant central tower, Salisbury Cathedral looks squat and long in comparison to Amiens. This impression is partly exaggerated by the screen facade (decorated interior partition), an English feature that developed in the early 13th century, and which is also seen at Wells and Lincoln. Unlike the portal, which reflects the nave and side aisles behind, the screen facade partially disguises the architectural layout and provides a back- drop for a range of sculptu- ral figures in niches.
Regional differences also became apparent in Germany. The first Gothic cathedrals in the mid-13th century, such as Marburg, Trier and Cologne, closely followed the French style. However, even at Marburg the first signs of the German innovation of the more open style of the Hallenkirche (`Hall church') are visible, where the aisles are almost the same height as the nave and the interior is lit from large aisle windows.
Secular architecture
The major examples of secular architecture to survive are castles, palaces and civic buildings. In England, an important contribution was made to military architecture by Edward I at the end of the 13th century, when a major building programme was undertaken, exemplified by Carnarfon Castle. In view of the continuous unrest in medieval Europe, the need for fortified buildings often formed part of everyday life. In Florence, for example, the Palazzo Vecchio (1299-1310) was built to house the Priori (or council) but displays battle ments, small pointed windows and im pressive rusticated stonework. On the other hand, in Venice the palaces were elegant and decorative. Both the Palazzo Ducale (Doge's Palace, 1340-after 1425) and the Ca'd'Oro (1422-c.1440) display a use of color and multiplicity of decorative architectural forms that were to survive well into the 15th century.
STAINED GLASS
The passing of light through glass was seen as symbolizing the spirit of God passing into the Virgin without violation of her purity. When the glass was stained and painted this symbolism was accentuated by the light taking on the color of the glass and decorating the interior of the church or cathedral.
The design of the window was drawn onto a wooden panel and the glass cut to fit suitable contours of the figure or pattern. The outlines were then drawn in dark pigment and the glass painted before being fired in a kiln. The segments were joined together with strips of lead and each window was set into an iron frame. The dominant colors of 12th-century glass are red and blue, but technical developments during the 13th and 14th centuries made other colors available, notably yellow. Glass painted in grisaille (or grey) is also common, particularly in lesser churches that could not afford expensive stained glass.
Most medieval glass has been destroyed over the centuries, particularly during the Reformation in England, but major schemes have survived at Chartres, Ste Chapelle (Paris) and Canterbury, where pilgrims would have been taught the biblical stories illustrated in the glass by guides, much as visitors are today. Splendid rose windows decorate the east, west or transept ends of most major Gothic cathedrals. The French rayonnant (c. 1230-c. 1350) and flamboyant (c. 1350-c. 1525) styles of Gothic architecture were named respectively after the radiating and flame-like nature of their window tracery.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* EARLY MEDIEVAL AND BYZANTINE ART
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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The Early Renaissance
(page 1)
ftsTitle
Leonardo's The Last Supper (c. 1495-97), a mural in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie. Leonardo's technical experiments when painting The Last Supper resulted in the decay of one of his masterpieces. Despite its poor condition, the painting has had a powerful influence on generations of painters.
The Early Renaissance (1 of 5)
The term Renaissance (`rebirth') was first coined in the 19th century to describe a period of intellectual and artistic renewal that lasted from about 1350 to about 1550. The dominant theme of this period is the revival of interest in classical literature and art by 14th- and 15th-century humanists and the rediscovery by artists of their cultural past. Florence was the first center of such rediscovery, with Padua, Venice and finally Rome rivaling Florence in the pursuit of antiquarian learning and artistic excellence. After 1500, the movement also spread to northern Europe.
This flowering was accompanied by a change in the status of artists - from craftsmen to honored members of cultured society - and was aided by en lightened civic, private, royal and papal patronage. Civic spending on the arts helped to fund several important public projects, in which many individual artists and architects were involved. Although the demand for paintings and sculpture of religious subjects was as great as before, the choice widened to include mythological, historical and allegorical subjects.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
* THE HIGH RENAISSANCE
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ftsTitleOverride
The Early Renaissance
(page 2)
ftsTitle
The dome of Florence Cathedral, designed by Brunelleschi, is a magnificent technical feat. In his Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects (1568), Giorgio Vasari described the dome as the finest of all the achievements of ancient and modern times'.
The Early Renaissance (2 of 5)
The courtly decorativeness of International Gothic was the immediate precursor of the Italian Renaissance. Gentile da Fabriano (c. 1370-1427) and Antonio Pisanello (c. 1395-1455) were the supreme exponents of this style in Italy. In the latter's paintings there begins to be a concern with perspectival views, although Gothic stylization still dominates. The growing interest in perspective and in the use of Classical motifs is clearly revealed in the early work of both Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455), such as the bronze panels of the Sacrifice of Isaac, that each submitted to the Florence Baptistery doors competition in 1402. The success of Ghiberti's composition led to his commission for the first set of bronze doors (1403-23), followed by the gilded doors, the so-called `Gates of Paradise' (1426-52) featuring Old Testament scenes.
An advance in the realistic depiction of the draped standing and seated figure can be seen in the sculpture of Donatello (c. 1386-1466), many of whose figures were also commissioned for Florentine civic projects. The realism of Donatello's sculpture probably influenced the figures of Masaccio (1401-c. 1428), such as those in the frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel. In his fresco of the Trinity (1426-27) the realism of the architectural setting for the figures owes much to Brunelleschi's architectural designs (see below).
As popular to contemporary tastes were the paintings of Fra Angelico (c. 1399-1455) and Fra Filippo Lippi (c. 1406-69), which retain many of the refined features of Gothic religious painting, yet show an awareness of the need for a realistic depiction of space and form. The gilded splendor of Fra Angelico's Coronation of the Virgin (c. 1430-40) contrasts with his simplified and spare scenes of monks in contemplation, while the crowded space of Lippi's Virgin-and-Child compositions are like painted depictions of high-relief sculpture.
One of Masaccio's Scenes from the Life of St Peter, a series of frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel of S Maria del Carmine, Florence (c. 1425). The strongly modeled forms and statuesque poses seem to be observed for the first time from life. (Archiv fer Kunst)
The Early Renaissance (3 of 5)
Paolo Uccello (c. 1397-1475) was one of the first of the Florentine painters to experiment in perspectival compositions, as in his fresco of the Deluge and the three panels depicting the Rout of Romano. These illustrate the way in which he employed this new method to produce works with dramatic foreshortening and distant vanishing points.
The application of mathematical rules in painting was pursued by Piero della Francesca (?1420-92). His compositions and figures, as seen in the frescoes illustrating the
Story of the True Cross in Arezzo, have a monumentality and geometric purity unequaled by his contemporaries. This simplicity is also seen in Brunelleschi's Classically inspired architecture, where he applies pure geometry in his designs for churches and secular buildings.
Brunelleschi's successor in this tradition was the humanist, architect and artist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), who consciously attempted to revive the architecture of the ancient Romans. Indeed, his own influential treatises on architecture, sculpture and painting are based upon Classical Roman prototypes. His church of S Andrea in Mantua was based on a Classical description of an Etruscan temple, and in his facade design for the Palazzo Rucellai in Florence the correct use of the Classical orders is employed for the first time.
The antiquarian pursuits and application of artificial perspective in the work of the North Italian Andrea Mantegna (c.1430- 1506) led him to depict Classically clothed figures and sculpture in steeply foreshortened scenes in the Overtari Chapel (Padua, Eremitani Church, 1459). The scenes of the Gonzaga family and the illusionistic ceiling decoration in the Camera degli Sposi in Mantua (1474) pre figure 16th-century painted illusionism.
A panel from Ghiberti's second set of doors (1426-52) for the Florence Baptistery, an important landmark in Renaissance art. In comparison with the Gothic detail of his first set of doors (1403-23), the second set - the so-called Gates of Paradise' - includes highly sophisticated representations of space and form.
` B The Early Renaissance (4 of 5)
Narrative and mythological painting and sculpture
The Italian medieval tradition of religious narrative fresco decorations in churches continued in the 15th century. But now the desire to decorate private palaces with secular narratives of historical or mythological subjects gave painters new areas for exploration. The mythological paintings of Sandro Botticelli (c. 1445-1510), such as Primavera (`Spring', 1477-78), and the Birth of Venus (c. 1485-90), reflect contemporary interest in esoteric Neoplatonist philosophy. In these enchanted visions Botticelli explores his distinctively linear style to the full.
In the more robust religious narratives of Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449-94), such as the Scenes from the lives of the Virgin and St John (1486-90), the religious scenes are cast in contemporary settings and include portraits of the patron and his family, or are set against distant landscapes. Sculptural equivalents of such narratives are found, for example, in the altar reliefs of Antonio Pollaiuolo (c. 1432-98) and Andrea Verrocchio (c. 1435-88).
Venice
Through its geographical position and historical trade links, Venetian painting reflected the impact both of Byzantine decoration and of north European painting, particularly in the use of oil painting. The local demand for devotional works and portraits was well suited to the Venetian style, in which surface brilliance and sumptuous color was more important than the inclusion of Classical forms.
Lay confraternities in Venice played a significant role in their patronage of painted narrative cycles for their headquarters. In the Miracle of the Relic of the True Cross (1494-95) of Vittorio Carpaccio (c. 1460-1523/6) the depiction of the miraculous event is relegated to a side position on a Venetian canal setting, barely observed by the throng of confraternity members represented. Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430-1516) probably learnt oil painting from the Sicilian, Antonello da Messina (c. 1430-79), who had probably learnt the technique in the Netherlands. Bellini's use of this medium profoundly affected the direction of Venetian art. His still, contemplative altarpieces and portraits, initially depicted with linear, sculptural form, later became increasingly saturated with color and light, a quality he also brought to his landscape compositions.
Piero della Francesca's Ideal City (detail; 1470), is a striking demonstration of perspective. It shows the mathematical system in which objects - in this case buildings - recede in proportional diminution.
The Early Renaissance (5 of 5)
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) represents the true Renaissance artist: not only was he proficient in all the arts, but he was also an engineer, inventor, scientist, mathematician and philosopher. His inventions include designs for a parachute and flying machines, and he made many studies of subjects as diverse as hydraulics and anatomy. As a painter, he developed the use of aerial perspective and monochrome effects in such paintings as the Adoration of the Kings (1481) and the Mona Lisa (1503), and yet his technical experiment in The Last Supper (1495-98) resulted in the immediate decay of one of his great masterpieces. His reputation was enormous during his lifetime, and has continued to be so. One of his greatest legacies is a vast collection of compositional and technical drawings, many of them in his notebooks, in which he wrote in mirror writing.
PERSPECTIVE
Perspective is a mathematical method of depicting three-dimensional space in two dimensions. In the 14th and 15th centuries the growing desire to represent naturalistic space in compositions led to the development of a system of perspective by Brunelleschi in the early 15th century.
This system involved the depiction of objects receding in proportional diminution to one or more vanishing points, the point or points at which all receding parallel lines appear to meet: this was determined by the position of the viewer's eye and distance from the picture plane, the imaginary plane on which the perspective of a painting meets the eye of the viewer.
Piero della Francesca and Alberti formalized the theoretical rules of perspective in their treatises. Uccello experimented with a less rigid perspective, and Leonardo explored aerial perspective, in which colors are paled and tones cooled toward blue with receding distance.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
* THE HIGH RENAISSANCE
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ftsTitleOverride
Early Netherlandish and German Art (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Temptation of Saint Anthony (right) by Bosch (detail). Carl Gustav Jung described Bosch as `this master of the monstrous . . . the discoverer of the Unconscious'. (National Museum of Ancient Art, Lisbon/Explorer)
Early Netherlandish and German Art (1 of 4)
The Netherlandish and German art of the period from around 1400 to 1570 is often described under the blanket term `Northern Renaissance'. While this label recognizes the originality and vitality of the northern contemporaries of the Italian Renaissance masters, it obscures the very important divide between the 15th and 16th centuries. In the earlier century the rediscoveries of the Italians aroused little interest north of the Alps, but in the 16th century Netherlandish and German artists became increasingly fascinated by classical antiquity.
Sometimes the term `Late Gothic' is applied to the 15th-century northern art and `Northern Renaissance' is restricted to that of the following century. This is unsatisfactory, as a taste for naturalism and a delight in experimentation were common to both. A fundamental problem is that the roots of art-historical terminology are Italian-based and encourage a viewpoint not entirely suited to the understanding of northern art.
The new realism in the Netherlands
At the monastery of Champmol near Dijon the weighty figures of prophets carved by Claus Sluter mark as dramatic a break with the still flourishing International Gothic. Robert Campin (1378/9-1444) of Tournai - also known as the Master of Flemalle - was impressed by Sluter's grim realism, as is apparent from the massive figures, robed in heavy folds, who inhabit his paintings.
However, it was his contemporary, the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck (active 1422-41), who is remembered as the `father' of the early Netherlandish painting. A court painter and trusted follower of the Duke of Burgundy, he excelled both as a portraitist and as a painter of altarpieces. By contrast, almost nothing is known about his elder brother and copainter of the Ghent Altarpiece, Hubert van Eyck (d. 1426). This altarpiece, completed in 1432, abounds in innovations including portraiture, nudes, meticulously accurate details and distant landscapes, spatial illusionism and the careful depiction of light and shadow. The brothers Van Eyck were the first to grasp fully the capacity of oil paint to render effects of light, color and texture. This new realism invested the age-old motifs of Christian art with a powerful new impact, permitting ever more complex levels of meaning.
After Jan Van Eyck, the Flemish painter most praised by contemporaries was Rogier van der Weyden (c. 1399-1464), a student of Campin. Aided by a brilliant sense of abstract design, he explored the emotive possibilities of the new style in his masterpiece, the Madrid Descent from the Cross. Van Eyck's Flemish pupil Petrus Christus (active 1444-72/3) continued his teacher's more contemplative style and made the first Netherlandish experiments with the Italian technique of one-point perspective.
The spread of the new style
By the mid-century collectors as far afield as Italy and Spain were eagerly acquiring paintings by the Netherlandish pioneers. Inspired by their example, German masters from Steven Lochner (active 1442-51) in Cologne to Konrad Witz (c. 1400-46/7) in Basel formulated local variants of the new style. In Colmar in Alsace Martin Schongauer (active 1469-91) translated Rogier van der Weyden's figure style into the new technique of engraving, and so the style was widely disseminated through prints. In the low countries, Dierick Bouts (active 1448-75) and Hans Memling (active 1465-94) also took their starting point from Rogier, while Hugo van der Goes (active 1467-82) turned repeatedly to the monumental grandeur of Jan van Eyck.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* THE DUTCH SCHOOL
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Early Netherlandish and German Art (page 2)
ftsTitle
Ghent Altarpiece by Jan and Hubert van Eyck (detail): this panel shows the Virgin Mary.
Early Netherlandish and German Art (2 of 4)
The impact of Italy and the Reformation
During the early 16th century many northern artists developed an essentially traditional style to ever increasing levels of complexity. Among such artists, the Flemish painter Hieronymus Bosch (active 1480/1-1516) is particularly notable. Bosch specialized in large, panoramic compositions peopled with myriad tiny figures and creatures. Although his paintings frequently utilize the triptych (triple-panel) format usual in altarpieces, it is more likely that they were intended as moral allegories for the entertainment and edification of private collectors. The German painter and hydraulic engineer Grenewald (Mathis Neithardt-Gothardt, active 1501-28) is the most expressionist of Renaissance artists, concentrating on religious themes. His masterpiece, the shutters of the Isenheim altarpiece (1515), vividly embodies the poetic mysticism of late medieval theology.
Other painters followed the lead of the German Albrecht Derer (1471-1528). A visitor to Venice in 1494-95 and 1505-07, he studied perspective and the theory of human proportions with Italian artists and read the treatises of the classical authorities Vitruvius and Euclid. Displaying an immensely fertile imagination and brilliant technical skill, his paintings impressed the Venetian master Giovanni Bellini. The designer of over 400 woodcuts and engravings, Derer elevated printmaking to the status of a major medium with such works as the humanist-inspired Melancholia of 1513.
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* THE DUTCH SCHOOL
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Early Netherlandish and German Art (page 3)
ftsTitle
Derer's Melancholia. In this complex allegory Derer achieved a range of tone not seen before in engraving.
Early Netherlandish and German Art (3 of 4)
The Germans Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480-1538), Hans Baldung Grien (1484/5-1545), and Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) consolidated Derer's foundation of the greatest school of painting and printmaking in German history. Artists in Catholic regions continued the traditional subject matter of altarpieces, while others such as Cranach and the German Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/8-1543) played a major role in the spread of the Reformation through their Protestant paintings and book illustrations. Holbein was also the principal portraitist of his day and, as the court painter of the English king, Henry VIII, the founder of what became the British school.
Despite Derer's visit to Antwerp in 1520-21, the growth of an Italianate style in the low countries was on the whole an independent development. Quentin Massys (1464/5-1530) had access to drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, who moved to France in
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
* GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* THE DUTCH SCHOOL
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ftsTitleOverride
Early Netherlandish and German Art (page 4)
ftsTitle
Bruegel's Corn Harvesting, one of the paintings from the series known as the Labours of the Month (1565). In all of the five surviving paintings from the series Bruegel has subordinated the images of the people to the lines of the landscape.
Early Netherlandish and German Art (4 of 4)
1517, and Jan Gossaert (also known as Mabuse; active 1503-32) visited Rome in 1508-09. Lucas van Leyden (c. 1489-1533) studied Italian and German prints, and his own engravings were celebrated by Vasari as the equal of Derer's own work.
In 1522 the Dutch painter Jan van Scorel (1495-1562) visited Rome, where the Dutch Pope Hadrian VI appointed him briefly as Raphael's successor in the post of curator of the Vatican collection of antiquities. His student Maerten van Heemskerck (1498-1574) also visited Italy and popularized classical form and subject matter in numerous paintings and engravings. Antwerp Mannerism was brought to its ultimate level of refined complexity by Frans Floris (flourished 1517-70). In contrast to such transplanted Italianism, Joachim Patenir (c. 1480-1524) - also active in Antwerp - developed the 15th-century fascination with landscape until it became an independent subject. The domestic scenes of the Dutch painter Pieter Aertsen (1508/9-75) conceal a religious message, but his delight in the details of everyday life foreshadows 17th-century Dutch genre painting (the term used for scenes of everyday life, particularly featuring peasants.
The pictures of Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c. 1525-69) were painted in the last years before the Revolt of the Netherlands destroyed the Netherlandish School. Although Bruegel mainly painted scenes of peasants and the countryside, his works often illustrate moral themes. Thus the famous Peasant Dance is best interpreted as a criticism of the lust and hypocrisy of the peasants who abuse a saint's day by regarding it as an excuse for a party. Some multi-figure landscapes such as his Procession to Calvary (1564) treat traditional religious themes. The breathtaking naturalism of Bruegel's paintings also marks the birth of a new, secular outlook, which was to flourish in the Golden Age of Dutch painting.
The focus of artistic activity in Italy shifted during the early 16th century from Florence to Rome, with the rise of papal patronage. Before the Sack of Rome by the Imperial forces in 1527, one of the most concentrated groups of artistic genius ever known was gathered in the papal city. The role of the artist changed even more dramatically than in the previous century, and a number of academies were established, confirming the professional status of the artist. At the same time, the artistic innovations of the Italian Renaissance began to spread to northern Europe.
Artistic innovation later led to the superficial elegance of Mannerism, a style which became popular all over Catholic Europe. However, the Counter-Reformation brought in restrictions on both subject matter and treatment of religious art, and by the end of the 16th century Mannerism had lost much of its vigor.
Rome and papal glory
The role of the pope in establishing Rome as a center of artistic prominence had begun in the 15th century. This was continued at a greater pace in the 16th century, with a succession of popes employing the foremost artists and architects of the day in the decoration and rebuilding of Rome. The triumvirate dominating the scene were Michelangelo, Raphael and Bramante. These three established a style that was to be copied throughout Italy.
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) started his artistic career in the humanist environment of Florence, where the Medici had been his patrons. On his first visit to Rome he carved his first great sculptures, such as the Pieta (1499), and on returning to Florence produced his giant marble David (1501-4). His second stay in Rome started in 1505, at the summons of Julius II. This was to work on the pope's tomb, a project on which he spent thirty years. Of the carved figures originally planned only the monumental Moses was finally placed on the much modified tomb. Even in their incomplete state, the languid and pent-up energy of the Slaves, also intended for the tomb, testify to Michelangelo's assertion that sculpture is locked into the block of stone, only waiting to be unleashed by the sculptor. His next major project, for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512), was undertaken without assistance. In scenes from the Old Testament - in which figures of Prophets, Sybils and nudes are set into the architectural framework - Michelangelo demonstrated his powers as a draughtsman and innovative colorist, and as the creator of painted figures of almost sculptural presence and beauty. Michelangelo worked in Florence from 1516 to 1534, but on his return to Rome he painted the Last Judgment (1536-41) on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.
* MEDIEVAL RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
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The High Renaissance and Mannerism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Raphael's `La Belle Jardinere'' (Mary with Jesus and John the Baptist; 1507). (Louvre, Paris/Archiv fer Kunst.)
The High Renaissance and Mannerism (2 of 4)
Raphael (1483-1520), who had been based in Florence in 1504-8, was also involved in extensive decorative schemes in Rome: in paintings for the Stanze and loggias of the Vatican Palace (1509-14), such as The School of Athens, and on the series of cartoons (drawings) for a set of tapestries for the Sistine Chapel (1517-18). These richly classical works, together with other works such as his portraits and Virgin-and-Child paintings, form the basis for High Renaissance art. Their wealth of invention and harmonious compositions were copied by artists for centuries.
Donato Bramante (1444-1514) arrived in Rome from Milan in 1499. In his designs for palace architecture, town planning and the series of courtyards connecting the Vatican Palace and the Villa Belvedere, he introduced the first truly classical architecture in Rome. Very little of his plan for St Peter's was completed, but his designs formed the basis for all subsequent work on the basilica, including the dome built by Michelangelo.
Patronage: the Medici
Apart from two periods of exile (1494-1512 and 1527-1530), the Medici family dominated artistic life in Florence in the 15th and 16th centuries. Under the patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and the grand dukes Cosimo I, Francesco and Ferdinand I, Florence experienced a wealth of artistic activity.
During the absence of Michelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo from Florence, the scene was dominated by Fra Bartolommeo (c. 1474-c. 1517) and Andrea del Sarto (1486-1530), whose altarpieces and frescoes represent the epitome of the harmonious and quietly classical Florentine style prior to the advent of Mannerism.
The middle years of the 16th century were dominated by a series of decorative schemes for the Palazzo Vecchio, the building of the Uffizi, the enlargement of the Pitti Palace and the Boboli Gardens. Directing many of these works was the painter and architect Giorgio Vasari (1511-74), who, as author of the Lives of the Artists, was responsible for attributing to contemporary Florentine artists, in particular Michelangelo, the supreme triumph of having surpassed both nature and the ancients in their art.
* MEDIEVAL RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
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The High Renaissance and Mannerism (page 3)
ftsTitle
The High Renaissance and Mannerism (3 of 4)
Mannerism
Mannerism is a style of exaggerated sophistication and virtuosity - sometimes combined with a heightened emotionalism and religiosity - that grew out of the example of High Renaissance art and was partly a reaction to it. In Florence, Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1556) and Agnolo Bronzino (1507-1572) perfected a style that featured figures posed in elegant tension, contrasts of colors, and dense, complicated compositions. In sculpture this tendency is represented by the brilliant goldsmith's work and bronzes of Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71) and in the work of Giambologna (1529-1608), such as the spiraling group of the Rape of the Sabines (1579-83).
In Mantua, Raphael's assistant, Giulio Romano (1492-1546), combined architecture and painting in his witty application of Mannerist details in the designs for the Gonzaga family's Palazzo del Te, begun in 1526. Antonio Correggio (c. 1495-1534) developed a rich painterly style in his altarpieces and frescoes, based on knowledge of Mantegna, Michelangelo and Raphael. In his illusionistic ceilings for the Cathedral dome and S Giovanni Evangelista in Parma he anticipated the illusionistic ceilings of the next century. Influenced by Correggio, Parmigianino (1503-40) evolved a style that delighted in elegant, if bizarre, distortion of the human figure, for instance in his Madonna of the Long Neck (c. 1535).
In 1532 the French king, Francis I, summoned Primaticcio (1504-70) and Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540) to provide the painted and stucco decorations for his chateau at Fontainebleau. The elaborate decorations had a profound effect on French artists such as Jean Goujon (active 1540-62) and Germaine Pilon (c. 1535-90). However, the formal court portrait style of Francois Clouet (d. 1540/1) remained unaffected. In the Spanish Netherlands and at the Habsburg court of Rudolf II at Prague, the style was enthusiastically taken up in all the arts, but adapted to suit existing tastes. In Spain, El Greco (1541-1614) produced a highly personal Mannerist style characterized by acid colors, elongated figures and mystical visions, seen for instance in his Burial of Count Orgaz (1586).
El Greco's Adoration of the Shepherds. The elongated figures, harsh colors and elaborate composition are typical of El Greco's distinctive Mannerist style.
The High Renaissance and Mannerism (4 of 4)
Venetian color
At the beginning of the 16th century Venetian art was dominated by Giovanni Bellini and Giorgione (c. 1476/8-1510). Giorgione's works introduced a new category of paintings depicting esoteric subjects - such as The Tempest - intended for private collectors. Giorgione also pioneered dream-like pastorals, in which figures and landscape became harmoniously integrated. This genre was also taken up by Titian (c. 1487/90-1576), considered to be the greatest of the Venetian painters. As Court Painter to Charles V he established an influential style of court portraiture, and his sensual allegorical works contain a lyrical richness that relies on color and tone rather than on drawing and line.
Mannerism in Venetian painting is represented by the darkly dramatic, sharply foreshortened compositions of Jacopo Tintoretto (1518-94) in his series decorating the confraternity headquarters of the Scuola di San Rocco. In contrast to these dark visions are the large canvases of Veronese (1528-88) depicting religious, historical and allegorical events in sumptuous Venetian settings.
16th-century architecture
After Bramante the major architect in Rome was Giacomo Vignola (1507-73), who continued the work on St Peter's. He codified the classical orders, and applied these in buildings such as the influential single-nave church of Il Ges
in Rome (begun 1568) and the Palazzo Farnese at Caprarola.
In northern Italy Andrea Palladio (1508-80) transformed villa and palace architecture, basing his designs on ancient Roman public buildings, and in particular the theories of Vitruvius. Most of his buildings are in and around Vicenza, including the Villa Malcontenta and the Villa Rotonda, although he also introduced a true classicism into his Venetian church designs. In his Four Books of Architecture (1570) Palladio devised a comprehensive architectural system, and Palladianism was to be a recurring theme in European architecture for the next two centuries.
The seven books of architecture compiled by the Italian Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) and his designs for buildings at Fontainebleau and the Chateau d'Ancy formed the basis for a new style in French architecture. The square court for the Louvre (1546-51) by Pierre Lescot (1500/15-78) represents the first example of classical French architecture. At Granada in Spain, an Italianate influence is seen in Charles V's Palace in the Alhambra (1527-68). Later in the century the austerity of the Escorial palace near Madrid is more in keeping with the severe tastes of Philip II.
In England Robert Smythson (c. 1536- 1614) combined influences from Serlio and Flemish architecture in a highly personal and romantic brand of Classicism, seen in such great houses as Longleat, Wollaton Hall and Hardwick Hall. However, it was not until the early 17th century that Inigo Jones introduced Palladianism to England.
* MEDIEVAL RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
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The Baroque and Classicism (page 1)
ftsTitle
Las Menias (1656) by Velasquez. The appearance of the artist himself in the left of the picture, together with the mysterious figures in the doorway and mirror, are all components in this complex exploration of illusion and reality. (Prado, Madrid/Archiv fer Kunst)
The Baroque and Classicism (1 of 5)
Classicism and the Baroque were the two dominant trends in the visual arts of the 17th century, particularly in Catholic countries and most importantly in Italy and France. Although frequently divergent and opposed, they both originated in the reaction in Italy at the end of the 16th century against the aridity of Late Mannerism. A return to the naturalism, harmonious equilibrium and compositional coherence of the High Renaissance was combined with a new physical realism, emotional immediacy and dynamic vigor.
The Baroque style combined the dramatic effects of energetic movement, vivid color and decorative detail with expressive originality and freedom. Classicism deployed more restrained qualities of directness and precision to enliven traditional ideas of balance and decorum.
* HIGH RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM
* ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
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The Baroque and Classicism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Caravaggio's The Young Bacchus uses a sexually ambiguous low-life character to model the god of wine.
The Baroque and Classicism (2 of 5)
The Early Baroque in Italy
The most remarkable painter of the Early Baroque was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1573-1610). His earlier works were controversial, celebrating sexually ambiguous low-life characters and representing holy figures as ordinary people, aspects combined in the Calling of St Matthew (c. 1599). His religious imagery was powerful, expressed in gestures, shadowed backgrounds and dramatic use of light and shade (chiaroscuro). His turbulent career in Rome culminated in his flight from a murder charge in 1606. The altarpieces he subsequently painted in Naples, Malta and Sicily were among his finest creations, increasingly somber, poignant and dramatic.
Ludovico Carracci (1555-1619) and his cousins Agostino (1557-1602) and Annibale (1560-1609) represented the orthodox side of the Early Baroque revolution, founding the first true example of the modern artistic academy, in Bologna in the 1580s. Their works revived the dignity of the Renaissance, enhanced by richer contrasts and colors, weightier figures and complex compositional relationships.
Annibale's most talented pupils were Guido Reni (1575-1642) and Domeni chino (1581-1641). Their very different approaches were already evident in their companion frescoes of Scenes from the martyrdom of St Andrew (1608-9), in which Reni's decorative elaboration contrasts with Domenichino's concentration on narrative. Reni's development, while occasionally encompassing some of the drama of Caravaggio, was towards idealized beauty, rhythmic grace and surface elegance. Domenichino, on the other hand, created an austerely original Classicism, with simplified and static compositions, grandiose figures and archaeologically accurate details.
* HIGH RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM
* ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
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ftsTitleOverride
The Baroque and Classicism (page 3)
ftsTitle
Claude Lorraine's Landscape with Dancing Farmers (1639) displays a typically Classical balance in its disposition of figures and landscape.
The Baroque and Classicism (3 of 5)
Developments outside Italy
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) studied in Italy, but subsequently transformed his Italian influences through a vigorous imagination and a brilliant technique. His paintings embody all the energy, color and sensuality of the Baroque. But he was equally capable of tenderness and sensitivity, particularly in portraiture; and his landscapes, allegorical schemes and altarpieces show a marvelous animation.
Rubens' enormous output required the help of a large studio of assistants, the most distinguished being Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678), who coarsened the master's style, and Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641), who refined it. Van Dyck's superbly elegant portraits were popular in Genoa and later in England, where they immortalized the court of Charles I.
Portraiture also became the chief medium of expression for the Spanish painter Diego Velasquez (1599-1660). His early works were scenes of everyday life, probably influenced by Caravaggio, and his religious and mythological pictures are charged with a sober naturalism. In his portraits too his level gaze never faltered as he moved from the power-mongers of the Spanish government to the pathetic court dwarfs and frail royal children, described with ever subtler handling of paint.
Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (detail). Heightened emotion, dramatic lighting and swirling drapery make this a masterpiece of Baroque sculpture.
The Baroque and Classicism (4 of 5)
The High Baroque in Rome
Perhaps the greatest figure of the Italian High Baroque was Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). The brilliant naturalistic forms of his sculpture expressed ideas of daring originality. He went on to combine sculpture with architecture and painting, as in the Ecstasy of St Teresa (1645-52). He transformed the square in front of the Baroque facade of St Peter's (of 1607-10) into an oval piazza enclosed by colonnades, to represent the embracing arms of the Church.
Although his compositions were complex, the architectural forms employed by Bernini were comparatively simple and firmly within the Classical tradition of the Renaissance. Quite different was the work of the architect Francesco Borromini (1599-1667), whose inventions were of an often bizarre power. An equal contrast is provided by the sensuous richness and formal harmony of the architecture and the painting of Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669). In Cortona's later works the development of architectural simplicity and pictorial lightness indicates an in creasing awareness of the new Classicism.
The challenge of Classicism
Bernini's dominance of the Roman artistic scene can obscure the presence there of an important group of artists who were opposed to the emotional drama and formal license of the Baroque. Instead they combined Baroque color and solidity with a revival of antique forms. The dominant figure of the group was the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin (1593/4 -1665), who was strongly influenced by Domenichino. The graceful poetry of some of his earlier works found admirers in Rome, but the increasingly sober, abstract qualities of his later mythologies and religious pictures appealed to the more rigorous intellectual climate of Paris. As part of this development Poussin often turned to pure landscape as an expression of mathematical order and contemplative grandeur. A new spirit was infused into landscape painting by another Frenchman, Claude Lorraine (1600-82). His sensitivity to nature and magical light effects transformed the stylizations of northern European landscape artists into poetic evocations of the changing moods of the Italian countryside. The wild and rocky scenes of the Italian Salvator Rosa (1615-73) were seen in the 18th century as precursors of the Sublime.
Architecture and decoration in France
French architecture of the 17th century moved from the elaborate decorative license of the previous period towards the rational refinements of Classicism. In buildings such as the Pales de Luxembourg, Paris (1615) an understanding of Classical rules was first wedded to the realization of three-dimensional mass. Francois Mansart (1598-1666) replaced the traditional steep pitch roof with the lower-angled form of the mansard roof, showing his devotion to Classical principles of unity.
The eclectic and decorative style of the architect Louis Le Vau (1612-70) found its most fruitful outlet in collaboration with the grandiose decorative schemes of the painter Charles Lebrun (1619-90) and the vast formal layouts of the gardener Andre Le Notre (1613-1700). This team was used by Louis XIV for the creation of Versailles; but it was the enormous new wings of the garden front, and the glittering interior of the Galerie des Glaces, both created by Jules Hardouin Mansart (1646-1708), that transformed the palace into such a potent symbol of glamour and authority.
* HIGH RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM
* ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
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The Baroque and Classicism (page 5)
ftsTitle
St Paul's Cathedral, designed by Christopher Wren, embodies the power and austerity of Classical architecture.
The Baroque and Classicism (5 of 5)
Architecture in England
Fifty years earlier a precursor of Versailles had been designed by Inigo Jones (1573-1652) in an unexecuted project for a palace at Whitehall for Charles I. Jones's Classicism, strongly influenced by Palladio, was of a rigorous purity exemplified by his Queen's House at Greenwich (1616-35). But it was also without immediate influence, presenting too extreme a contrast to the prevailing Jacobean mode. The eclecticism of English taste is indicated by the fact that Jones's ultra-Classical Banqueting House at Whitehall (1619-22) was soon decorated with Rubens' ultra-Baroque ceiling paintings. Some idea of the Italianate grandeur of Jones's lost larger works is given by the wing built by a pupil of his as the first part of Greenwich Hospital (1663-67).
By the Restoration in 1660 a more modest Classicism of Dutch and French inspiration had become the norm for grand domestic architecture. This used to be associated with Christopher Wren (1632-1723); but Wren was in fact the great ecclesiastical architect of the period, as is attested by his rebuilding of St Paul's (begun 1675) and the City churches destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. His additions to Hampton Court (1690-96) and Greenwich Hospital (from 1694) show a monumental grandeur.
The power and gloom that permeates some of Wren's designs is probably due to his assistant, Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661-1716). Hawksmoor too showed his true genius in church architecture. However, he also worked as an assistant on the country houses of John Vanbrugh (1664-1726), whose vast Baroque inventions contrast strong movement with massively weighty masonry, as at Castle Howard (begun 1699) and Blenheim Palace (1705-24).
* HIGH RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM
* ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
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The Dutch School (page 1)
ftsTitle
Brouwer's Singing Farmers - (right) a typical tavern scene in which the vulgarity of his subject contrasts with the delicacy of his style.(Kunsthaus, Zurich/Archiv fer Kunst)
The Dutch School (1 of 5)
In the 17th century a sudden flowering of the art of painting in the Netherlands coincided with the overthrow of Spanish rule and Dutch mercantile success throughout the world.
The stubborn tenacity that enabled them to triumph over apparently superior forces at home and abroad was reflected in the solid sobriety with which the Dutch viewed their surroundings. Having saved their country and their possessions for themselves, they wanted to see them safely depicted, a calm reflection of their vision of reality. To achieve this their artists concentrated on the types of painting in which they had long specialized - still life, genre, landscape and portraiture.
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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ftsTitleOverride
The Dutch School (page 2)
ftsTitle
Kalf's Still Life with Fruit and China Vase. The watch in the bottom left- hand corner is included as a reminder of the passage of time. (Archiv fer Kunst)
The Dutch School (2 of 5)
Still life
Early 17th-century Dutch still lifes faithfully render domestic objects and flowers in brilliant color and light, but almost haphazardly against dark backgrounds. Often a watch, skull or other reminder of the passage of time is included. More subtle compositions were gradually developed, using restricted color harmonies and more atmospheric tones and settings.
In the second half of the century, lower viewpoints, combined with greater depth in the composition, produced a naturalistic effect. The works of Willem Kalf (1619-93) - daringly composed arrangements of sculpted silver, blue and white Delft ware and ripe fruit - are typical.
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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ftsTitleOverride
The Dutch School (page 3)
ftsTitle
Ruisdaels View from Ootmarsum. Ruisdaels landscapes are often dominated by vast, cloudy skies.
The Dutch School (3 of 5)
Genre
Genre painting is the depiction of scenes of everyday life, originally (as with still life) with an allegorical intention. Its translation in the Netherlands into pure narrative was partly due to the influence of Caravaggio, who had incorporated aspects of both still life and genre into his works. These aspects were taken up and popularized by his followers, who included Dutch artists in Rome such as Hendrick Terbrugghen (1588-1629) and Gerard van Honthorst (1590-1656). They founded the Utrecht School, which produced occasional religious pictures (Utrecht was a Catholic center), but chiefly colorful groups of low-life characters in fancy dress, distinguished by Caravaggesque use of dramatic light and shade.
More realistic were the works of Adriaen Brouwer (1605/6-38), a Fleming who worked mainly in the Netherlands. In his tavern scenes, boorish men carousing or snoring are sympathetically depicted in delicate color harmonies with subtle lighting. Also related to the Flemish tradition were Dutch pictures of butchers' shops and market stalls, which combined still life with picturesquely vulgar figures. Vulgarity, ostensibly with a moralizing message, was also the keynote of the boisterous, colorful and highly detailed scenes of Jan Steen (1626-79).
Quite different was the quiet atmosphere of the genteel interiors of Gerard Terborch (1617-81), which often feature precise renderings of silks and carpets. Equally quiet, but far subtler and more daring in the handling of light and perspective, were the interior and exterior views of Pieter de Hooch (1629-84). An air of mystery is often added to the realism of his homely rooms and courtyards by the interpolation of further, gently lit views into subsidiary background spaces.
Jan Vermeer (1632-75) of Delft is best known for his domestic interiors whose restricted colors, simplified forms, del-icate rendering of light effects and skillful compositions built up from geometrical shapes transformed the humdrum into the poetic.
Vermeer's The Geographer (1669; also known as The Astronomer).
delsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt/Archiv fer Kunst)
The Dutch School (4 of 5)
Landscapes and other views
The earliest Dutch landscapes combined the artificial compositions of Mannerism with a minute description of realistic detail, but a more naturalistic style later developed. In the 1630s and 1640s, parallel with changes in still life painting, atmosphere and tonal subtleties created a new sense of light and space. After 1650 these achievements were gradually combined with a richer color range, and a greater feeling for natural drama.
The most accomplished figure of this last period was Jacob van Ruisdael (1628/9-82), whose works are as varied and as inventively composed as Claude's, though less idealized. Those of Meindert Hobbema (1638-1709), a former pupil of Ruisdael, concentrate on decorative, sunlit forest scenes, while his best known work, The Avenue at Middelharnis, (1689) derives its strong central focus from an avenue of tall trees receding into the distance. Contrastingly Italianate are the golden light and warm tonalities of Aelbert Cuyp (1620-91), which lend his simple groupings of trees, cows or ships a poetic monumentality.
Townscapes became popular later in the 17th century, under the influence of Italian examples, and in their turn contributed to the topographical aspect of 18th-century view painting. Specifically Dutch, however, were the church interiors of Pieter Saenredam (1597-1665), perhaps the nearest things to popular Dutch religious pictures. Their spatial complexity and monumental architectural values reflect the intellectuality as well as the tenacious realism of Protestantism.
Other artists were equally specialized. The ice scenes of Hendrik Avercamp (1585-1634) are decoratively joyous and detailed. Willem van der Velde (1633-1707) painted seascapes, often collaborating with his father of the same name on superbly atmospheric yet splendidly detailed arrangements of ships at sea.
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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The Dutch School (page 5)
ftsTitle
Rembrandt's engraving, the so-called `Hundred Guilder Print', depicts scenes from St Matthew's Gospel, chapter 19. It is probably his most complex engraving in terms of composition and demonstrates his masterly use of light.
(The Albertina Collection/Austrian Embassy, London).
The Dutch School (5 of 5)
Portraits
In portraiture, the most popular branch of painting in the Netherlands, developments occurred at a rapid pace. This was due to the brilliant talent of Franz Hals (1580/85-1666), who soon dominated the field, his lively brushwork vividly capturing fleeting expressions. The immediacy of his group portraits gives life to potentially static compositions, while single sitters are portrayed directly, with apparently spontaneous handling of paint providing visual excitement. His technique became even freer, and his colors more limited, during the 1640s and 1650s. His final works, painted when he was destitute, show a more sensitive approach that may indicate an awareness of the late Rembrandt.
NG-R
REMBRANDT
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69) stands apart from the rest of the Dutch School not only through his imagination and depth of human sympathy, but also because of the variety and originality of his subject matter and his superlative technical skills. The last were evident from his earliest works, which include experiments in Caravaggio's dramatic chiaroscuro (contrast of light and shade) and Rubens' colorful vigor.
However, Rembrandt made his name through his success in portraiture. His first triumph in Amsterdam was The Anatomy Lesson (1632), and his single portraits were equally convincing and imaginative, often employing illusionistic tricks.
Subtler illusionistic effects and an even more ambitious compositional use of light appeared in another group portrait, the so-called Night Watch (1642); this extraordinary picture combines an almost abstract disposition of its naturalistic parts with a Baroque sense of dramatic movement.
This was the high point of Rembrandt's worldly success. His fortunes subsequently declined, largely because he had begun to live extravagantly, and refused to concentrate on the sort of work that would have made him rich. His interest in Old Testament subjects had begun early, as shown by the Jeremiah of 1630, opulently colored and richly detailed, with only the dramatic fall of light illuminating the prophet's sorrow. Subsequent examples, such as Bathsheba (1654), are more direct in composition, more restrained in color and comparably deeper in psychological insight.
More conventional religious feeling was expressed in Rembrandt's etchings, though with unconventional means - vast sweeps of light, tense groupings of figures and sudden detail create great emotional dramas, often in a tiny area. His technical mastery is equally evident in the range of his drawings.
Rembrandt's range and development can most clearly be seen in his series of self-portraits. These were painted over forty years and charted his personal journey from unconventional beginner to young master, disillusioned middle-aged bankrupt to weary sage, by which time he had achieved an extraordinary freedom and expressiveness in his handling of paint.
aint.
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* EARLY NETHERLANDISH AND GERMAN ART
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Rococo and Neoclassicism (page 1)
ftsTitle
Rococo ornate ceiling. The colors white, pale blue and gold, and swirling curves and elliptical shapes are typical of Rococo.
Rococo and Neoclassicism (1 of 4)
The synthesis in later 17th-century Italy of Classicist idealization and Baroque vigor was taken up in France and spread throughout Europe as the accepted courtly `Grand Manner'. It was soon diluted by the 18th-century desire for the informal and the undemanding, which found its artistic expression in the style known as Rococo. For perhaps the first time the primary function of art was perceived as decorative, rather than illustrative or didactic. Neither the attitude nor the style were fully accepted in England, where Baroque license had already been challenged early in the new century by the more `rational' concept of Palladianism. By the 1750s a reaction to the still freer and more exotic forms of the Rococo appeared not only in England but in France, cradle of the style. Archaeological discoveries in Italy and Greece prompted a re-examination of the origins of European civilization. French intellectualism developed this into international Neoclassicism, and also into the cults of the primitive and of the individual. The latter aspects were forerunners of the Romanticism of the early 19th century.
The Rococo in France
The origins of Rococo can be seen in the later works commissioned by Louis XIV, such as the chateaux of Marly and La Menagerie, where redecorations included curving forms, curved mirrors and cornices, and plain ceilings with central rosettes. During the reign of Louis XV, Rococo dominated interior design. Its trend was towards lightness and freedom, abstraction of decorative detail, and the dominance of curves. Decoration was derived from foliage, sunbursts, grotesques and shellwork (or rocaille, giving rise to the later, contemptuous name `Rococo'). The shapes of these forms were reflected in the rooms themselves, which were wholly or partly circular or elliptical. Color-schemes typically featured ivory white, pale blue, and gold.
Decorative elegance also characterized contemporary French painting, although neither of its two greatest figures, Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) and Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin (1699-1779), can be thought of properly in terms of Rococo. While Watteau refined the Flemish mythologies of Rubens and Van Dyck into scenes of melancholy charm, Chardin poeticized the prosaic Dutch gentleness of de Hooch and Ter Borch. More in harmony with Rococo interiors were the paintings of Francois Boucher (1703-70), the favorite of Madame de Pompadour (Louis XV's mistress) and the even frothier confections of Jean-Honore Fragonard (1732-1806).
Some of the most original creations of French Rococo were in the applied arts: curved furniture, richly inlaid and gilt-mounted; porcelain, notably the elaborate and vividly colored products of the Sevres factory founded by Pompadour and Louis XV; and silverware in often boldly asymmetrical shapes.
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
* ROMANTICISM
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Watteau's Italian Comedian (1720). There is always a sadness beneath the gaiety of Watteau's dreamlike scenes of festivities.
Rococo and Neoclassicism (2 of 4)
Rococo in Germany, Italy and Britain
Such elements of asymmetry and inventive fancy (relegated to minor details in French Rococo) were developed to imaginative heights as central features of German Rococo, which elaborated the basics of the style with fantasy and humor. In the exquisite Amalienburg pavilion (1734-39) - at the Schloss Nymphenburg near Munich - the smooth French elegance of the exterior is enlivened by whimsical details; the central salon reduces the grandeur of Versailles' Galerie des Glaces to a playful oval where the variously shaped mirrors reflect spiraling drifts of birds, flowers, foliage and graceful figures, all in silver on a pale blue ground.
Yet more original were the decorations of pilgrimage churches like the Wieskirche, Bavaria (1745-54), and Vierzehnheiligen, Franconia (1743-72). The architectural forms are those of Italian Baroque, but the plan of Vierzehnheiligen, by Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753), is an ingeniously interlocking series of oval and circular spaces, which creates a truly Rococo sense of fluidity. The exterior of Neumann's Werzburg Residenz (1719- 44) is also Baroque, but the grandeur of the interior is lightened by sparkling Rococo details.
The lightness of the Kaisersaal and Treppenhaus at Werzburg is brilliantly enhanced by the illusionistic ceiling frescoes (painted 1750-52) of the Venetian Giambattista Tiepolo (1696-1770), perhaps the greatest genius of the Rococo. His dazzling effects, luminous color and seemingly endless invention ensured that he was in demand throughout Europe.
The other masters of Venetian Rococo were Tiepolo's brothers-in-law, Gianantonio (1699-1760) and Francesco (1712- 93) Guardi. The real and imaginary views of Venice painted by Francesco after his brother's death evoke the changing hues of water and sky as freely as the landscapes of the Impressionists. But even the more precise scenes of Antonio Canaletto (1697-1768) were imbued with a poetry only partly due to the decorative fantasy of Venice itself. Indeed the contemporary architecture of the city was one of Classical revival. The true architectural expression of the Italian Rococo is seen in the grandiose scale and elegant curves of the Spanish Steps in Rome (1723-26).
In Britain Rococo elements also appeared in painting, in the graceful landscapes of Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88), whose portraits represent a rather different mode. Rococo elements can also be detected in the crisp line of William Hogarth (1697-1784), whose moralizing satires were otherwise quite contrary to the whimsicality of the Rococo. Apart from the minor arts of silverware and porcelain, the true spirit of Rococo was only fully expressed in England in chinoiserie (a Chinese-inspired decorative style) and Gothic decoration. But the Gothic Revival, even in the mid-18th century, was rarely without intellectual and emotional resonances relating it to the ideas of the Sublime and Picturesque. The pioneering gardens of the poet Alexander Pope (1688-1744; and William Kent (1685-1748), based in part on supposed Chinese ideas of asymmetry, had a very Rococo air with their sinuous lines and artfully composed surprises. The later, more open and apparently natural designs of Lancelot `Capability' Brown (1716-83) were in fact controlled by defined concepts of Classical harmony and balance.
ance.
balance.
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
* ROMANTICISM
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
David's The Intervention of the Sabine Women (1799). Originally a painter in the Rococo manner, David became influenced by the antique after his stay in Rome in 1755-80. He led the reaction against the frivolous Rococo and his own Neoclassical style became heroic and severe.
Rococo and Neoclassicism (3 of 4)
Neoclassicism in Italy and France
The intellectual and philosophical basis of Neoclassicism originated and was developed in Rome and Paris. The ideas of various French theorists and the accurate recording of Greek and Roman antiquities provided food for thought as well as matter for stylistic change. The Louis XVI style of decoration (actually begun under Louis XV) replaced curves with straight lines, sculptural movement with low-relief restraint, and natural and abstract forms with stylized Antique detail. The architectural equivalent can be represented by the classic simplicity of the Petit Trianon (1762-68).
Neoclassicism in painting is best represented by the severely noble canvases of Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825). Lacking Antique examples of his art, David relied on the achievements of Nicolas Poussin; but his forms were more simplified and his details more archaeological. At his height he could achieve the poetic realism of the Death of Marat (1793) without losing his Classical poise. As David was the leading Neoclassical painter, so the Italian Antonio Canova (1757-1822) was the leading Neoclassical sculptor. However, where David was austere, Canova tended towards the sentimental, setting the style for much 19th-century sculpture.
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
* ROMANTICISM
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Gainsborough's portrait of Mr and Mrs Andrews (c. 1750) celebrates both the self-confidence of the English land-owning classes and the improvements in agricultural techniques that they were pioneering in the 18th century. A delight in landscape backgrounds and a remarkable feel for drapery were hallmarks of Gainsborough's portraiture. (National Gallery, London)
Rococo and Neoclassicism (4 of 4)
PORTRAITURE IN THE 18TH CENTURY
The 18th-century interest in rational philosophy and in the development of personal taste contributed to the importance of the individual, and this was reflected in the rise of portraiture as a pictorial genre. With some artists, such as Boucher and Chardin, the result was simply an extension of their usual style. Others, such as the Venetian Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), successfully exploited the new medium of pastel.
The period also saw an unprecedented development of portraiture in Britain. Allan Ramsay (1713-84) created images of delicacy and directness. The same qualities appear in the technically more original works of Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88), which, frequently set against a melting landscape background, often seem to capture a fleeting moment. The Classical allusions and solid technique of Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) attempt to bring the allegorical values of history painting to portraiture. His influence can clearly be seen in many compositions by Henry Raeburn (1756-1823). The precocious talent of Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) effectively captured the flamboyance of the Regency period.
An opposite trend was represented by the popularity of the pseudo-Classical bust as a portrait medium. With David's portraiture, sculptural form invaded painting, often - as with Madame Recamier - presented in an abstract setting.
* THE BAROQUE AND CLASSICISM
* ROMANTICISM
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
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Romanticism (page 1)
ftsTitle
Liberty Leading the People (1830) by Eugne Delacroix (right). The painting celebrates the revolution of that year, and demonstrates a hatred of tyranny shared by many of the Romantics.
Romanticism (1 of 3)
Romanticism was a movement in art that emerged in the late 18th century, and that flourished until the middle of the 19th. The movement was a reaction both against the aesthetic and ethical values of Classical and Neoclassical art, and against the ugliness and materialism of the Industrial Revolution. The influence of Romantic writers such as Rousseau, Schiller, Goethe, Scott and Byron was particularly important in providing both subject matter and a philosophy for the Romantic painters. The values of the wider Romantic movement are central to an understanding of the visual art of the period. Indeed it is the content of Romantic painting and the attitude of the artists themselves that give the movement coherence, as in terms of style and technique there are enormous variations.
The Romantic artist
The Romantic image of the artist is of the solitary hero, struggling to recreate his inner vision on the canvas: `Genius is the fire of a volcano,' wrote Gericault, `that must and will break forth.' There was a determination to paint the world as they saw it, and for many Romantic painters this meant the modern world with all its imperfections, rather than the statically balanced pictures of noble Greeks and Romans favored by the Neoclassicists.
In Neoclassical art the struggle and feelings of the artist are deliberately concealed under a smooth surface in which the main masses are sharply defined. In contrast, the greatest Romantic painters - Constable, Turner, Goya, Delacroix and Gericault - shunned an over-emphasis on line, applying paint freely and boldly in a way that draws attention to the artistic process itself. However, modern subjects and painterly techniques were by no means universal among Romantic painters.
Precursors of Romanticism
For some Romantics the art of the Middle Ages represented their version of an ideal world, a world redolent of knights and chivalry and Christian purity. In architecture the Gothic Revival began in England in the first half of the 18th century, and continued right through the 19th century.
The 18th-century taste for the Gothic went hand in hand with a liking for ivy-clad ruins, evoking a melancholy sense of a lost and mysterious past. Such `ruins' were often deliberately constructed in grounds laid out in a more `natural' and unpredictable way than earlier formally patterned gardens.
Theoreticians of the 18th century held up such quaint and irregular landscapes (whether natural or man-made) as examples of the Picturesque. This notion had a great impact on landscape painting in the later 18th century, and was to be absorbed by both Constable and Turner. The Picturesque was contrasted with the order and regularity of the Beautiful (qualities central to the Classical conception of art), and with the awesome grandeur of the Sublime. The Sublime was exemplified in mountain scenery and storms, which previously had been regarded as ugly and useless, but which from the mid-18th century began to be admired as thrilling manifestations of a power greater than man.
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* ARCHITECTURE IN THE 19TH CENTURY
* ROMANTICISM IN EUROPE
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
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ftsTitleOverride
Romanticism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Friedrich's Abbey in the Oakwoods (1810). Gothic ruins and brooding skies appealed to the contemporary taste for melancholy and mystery
Romanticism (2 of 3)
The Romantic landscape
The Sublime was central to the Romantic idea of landscape. For the Romantics, landscape contained a meaning beyond and above its mere visual appearance - an idea that frequently emerges in the works of such poets as Wordsworth and Shelley.
Many Romantic painters attempted to imbue their landscapes with this sense of transcendent meaning. The German painter Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) used an almost photographic technique to bring out every detail in his landscapes. Mountains, forests, oceans, skies and ruins dominate tiny figures, evoking a melancholy sense of the infinite. Friedrich saturates his scenes with the light of storm or moon or dawn or sunset in such a way as to give a sense that a visionary experience is close yet unattainable.
The English painter John Martin (1789-1854) was also a maker of vast imaginary landscapes. But whereas Friedrich seems to be on the verge of genuine vision, Martin is merely a sensationalist. In his great apocalyptic extravaganzas, drawn largely from the Bible, the destructive forces of nature are exaggerated to a degree that is now difficult to take seriously, but which thrilled his contemporaries. Indeed the taste for `dramatic' landscape in the manner of Friedrich and Martin continued through much of the 19th century.
A unique contribution to Romantic landscape was made by Samuel Palmer (1805-81), a follower of the visionary poet and artist William Blake. As a young man living at Shoreham in the North Downs of Kent, Palmer produced a series of intense visions of the fecundity of nature, painted in a totally personal linear style.
Painting nature - Constable and Turner
Although for many of the Romantics nature was a veil through which the Eternal might sometimes be glimpsed, for the two greatest Romantic landscape painters - both English - the portrayal of nature for its own sake was paramount.
The quiet East Anglian landscapes of John Constable (1776-1837) do not immediately strike one as typically Romantic. What is Romantic about them is Constable's honesty to his own experience of nature. Changing moods in the weather, the play of light on clouds and trees and water - all these Constable captured on canvas with unprecedented directness and skill. He had no desire to idealize or generalize the particular scene before him, and if it contained a broken-down old cart (as in The Hay Wain, 1821), in it would go. His influence on French painting was profound, particularly on the landscapists of the Barbizon school.
Like Constable, Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851) was far more concerned with the business of painting nature as he saw it than with any Romantic philosophy. Initially inspired by the `Picturesque' landscapes of Claude and the 17th-century Dutch masters, Turner gradually introduced more obviously Romantic subject matter into his work. His exploration of the visual effects of great elemental forces such as Alpine storms was accompanied by increasingly free brushwork. In later works such as Rain, Steam and Speed (1844) light and atmospheric effects dominate the picture to such an extent as to make it virtually abstract, looking forward to the Impressionists and beyond.
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* ARCHITECTURE IN THE 19TH CENTURY
* ROMANTICISM IN EUROPE
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
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ftsTitleOverride
Romanticism (page 3)
ftsTitle
Goya's Third of May was in part a record of the atrocities witnessed during the French occupation of Spain (1808-14). His painting has become a potent anti-war image.
Romanticism (3 of 3)
Explorers of the irrational - Goya and Fuseli
Henry Fuseli, originally Johann Heinrich Fessli (1741-1825), was a Swiss painter who settled permanently in England in 1788, where he became a friend and admirer of Blake. In his most famous work, The Nightmare (1782), a grotesque demonic dwarf squats on the body of a sleeping woman, while through the curtains bursts the head of a fearsome horse. Although not an outstanding painter, his explorations of the darker side of human nature were highly influential within the Romantic movement.
A far greater painter was Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (1746-1848). As painter to the Spanish court he produced fine portraits painted with a free and masterly technique. However, his dislike for the reactionary establishment led him to such works as the Caprices (1799), a series of prints intended to mock the follies and superstitions of society. The result was a series of nightmare images, on which he commented `The sleep of reason produces monsters.' In another series of prints, The Disasters of War (1810-20), and in his great painting The Third of May (1814), Goya gave graphic witness to the horrors that result when men abandon reason in war. In his last great works, such as Saturn Devouring One of his Children (c. 1820-23), hideous giant figures loom out of the frenzied paintwork, giving a more symbolic expression to the dark forces within humanity.
The French Romantics - Gericault and Delacroix
In 1812 Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) virtually overthrew the dominance of Neoclassicism in France with one picture, his Charging Chasseur. This gallant cavalry officer on his wild, rearing horse struck the contemporary imagination as a magnificent image of Napoleonic glory. For Gericault, horses represented the epitome of untamed Romantic power, and they feature in many of his finest paintings. Gericault also had a more morbid streak, which found its greatest expression in The Raft of the Medusa (1819). Based on a recent event, it depicts the dead and dying abandoned on a raft following a shipwreck. Transcending the sensationalism of the subject, Gericault transforms the terrible scene into one of timeless drama.
Like many of the Romantics, Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) was sympathetic to liberal and nationalist aspirations. This is reflected in works such as Liberty Leading the People (1830), a celebration of the revolution in that year that overthrew the reactionary Bourbons from the French throne. What was striking about this picture was its lack of idealization: the revolutionaries at the barricade - and even Liberty herself - are far from genteel or classically heroic.
Delacroix was also attracted by more exotic subjects - often featuring sex and violence - which he painted in brilliant clashes of vibrant color. For example, in The Death of Sardanapalus (1827) the dying Assyrian tyrant looks on indifferently as his naked concubines are butchered to join him in death. Delacroix often gave his compositions an apparently random structure, suggesting an extraordinary sense of movement and actuality.
Medievalism
The nostalgia for things medieval that first emerged in the Gothic Revival is also seen in such writers as Scott and Keats, and in two groups of Romantic painters in particular. The first of these, the Nazarenes, were a group of German artists working in Rome in the early 19th century, who drew their inspiration from late medieval German art.
In England the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (founded 1848) tried to recreate what they saw as the innocent naturalism of 15th-century Italian painting. Leading members of this group were Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82), John Everett Millais (1829-96) and William Holman Hunt (1827-1910), who in turn strongly influenced William Morris (1834-96) and Edward Burne-Jones (1833-98). Like that of the Nazarenes, the work of the PRB lacked the vigor of the original, and the subjects chosen often veered towards the pious or the sentimental.
Turner's Venice, Entry into the Grand Canal. In his late works, such as this, Turner floods his canvas with light, whose effects he captures with an extraordinarily free handling of paint.
Romanticism (4 of 4)
Explorers of the irrational - Goya and Fuseli
Henry Fuseli, originally Johann Heinrich Fessli (1741-1825), was a Swiss painter who settled permanently in England in 1788, where he became a friend and admirer of Blake. In his most famous work, The Nightmare (1782), a grotesque demonic dwarf squats on the body of a sleeping woman, while through the curtains bursts the head of a fearsome horse. Although not an outstanding painter, his explorations of the darker side of human nature were highly influential within the Romantic movement.
A far greater painter was Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (1746-1848). As painter to the Spanish court he produced fine portraits painted with a free and masterly technique. However, his dislike for the reactionary establishment led him to such works as the Caprices (1799), a series of prints intended to mock the follies and superstitions of society. The result was a series of nightmare images, on which he commented `The sleep of reason produces monsters.' In another series of prints, The Disasters of War (1810-20), and in his great painting The Third of May (1814), Goya gave graphic witness to the horrors that result when men abandon reason in war. In his last great works, such as Saturn Devouring One of his Children (c. 1820-23), hideous giant figures loom out of the frenzied paintwork, giving a more symbolic expression to the dark forces within humanity.
The French Romantics - Gericault and Delacroix
In 1812 Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) virtually overthrew the dominance of Neoclassicism in France with one picture, his Charging Chasseur. This gallant cavalry officer on his wild, rearing horse struck the contemporary imagination as a magnificent image of Napoleonic glory. For Gericault, horses represented the epitome of untamed Romantic power, and they feature in many of his finest paintings. Gericault also had a more morbid streak, which found its greatest expression in The Raft of the Medusa (1819). Based on a recent event, it depicts the dead and dying abandoned on a raft following a shipwreck. Transcending the sensationalism of the subject, Gericault transforms the terrible scene into one of timeless drama.
Like many of the Romantics, Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) was sympathetic to liberal and nationalist aspirations. This is reflected in works such as Liberty Leading the People (1830), a celebration of the revolution in that year that overthrew the reactionary Bourbons from the French throne. What was striking about this picture was its lack of idealization: the revolutionaries at the barricade - and even Liberty herself - are far from genteel or classically heroic.
Delacroix was also attracted by more exotic subjects - often featuring sex and violence - which he painted in brilliant clashes of vibrant color. For example, in The Death of Sardanapalus (1827) the dying Assyrian tyrant looks on indifferently as his naked concubines are butchered to join him in death. Delacroix often gave his compositions an apparently random structure, suggesting an extraordinary sense of movement and actuality.
Medievalism
The nostalgia for things medieval that first emerged in the Gothic Revival is also seen in such writers as Scott and Keats, and in two groups of Romantic painters in particular. The first of these, the Nazarenes, were a group of German artists working in Rome in the early 19th century, who drew their inspiration from late medieval German art.
In England the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (founded 1848) tried to recreate what they saw as the innocent naturalism of 15th-century Italian painting. Leading members of this group were Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82), John Everett Millais (1829-96) and William Holman Hunt (1827-1910), who in turn strongly influenced William Morris (1834-96) and Edward Burne-Jones (1833-98). Like that of the Nazarenes, the work of the PRB lacked the vigor of the original, and the subjects chosen often veered towards the pious or the sentimental.
IDC
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* ARCHITECTURE IN THE 19TH CENTURY
* ROMANTICISM IN EUROPE
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
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p538-1
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Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 19th Century (page 1)
ftsTitle
Schloss Neuschwanstein, the fairy-tale castle built by Ludwig II of Bavaria (1848-86). The interiors were decorated with scenes from Wagner's romantic operas. (Images)
Architecture and the Applied Arts
in the 19th Century (1 of 4)
Neoclassicism had seen architecture and design enriched both by archaeological discoveries of ancient buildings and by intellectual interest in primitive cultures. The latter, combined with an equally radical concentration on geometric forms, had contributed to the creation, in the last years of the 18th century, of what is known as Romantic Classicism - the architectural counterpart of Romanticism in the other arts - in France, England and Germany. This was characterized, in a series of grandiose but mostly unrealized projects, by freedom from stylistic dependence on the past.
The most original of those projects that were executed was the remodeling of the Bank of England by John Soane (1753-1837) between 1788 and 1833; the interiors particularly demonstrated Soane's genius for the creation of dramatic shapes, as can still be seen on a small scale in his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields, London (1812-13).
Regency eclecticism
The converse of Soane's individualism was the lavish eclecticism of John Nash (1752-1835). His planned transformation of London's fashionable West End, with a triumphal commercial way linking the Prince Regent's residence with a newly developed Regent's Park, surrounded by terraces and dotted with villas, was a successful application of Picturesque ideas of variety and asymmetry to a city setting. Nash was equally inventive in other styles - most famously in Indian and Chinese, as in the Royal Pavilion, Brighton (1815-21).
The variety of Regency styles was reflected with less exuberance in architecture abroad. But in furniture, silverware, china and interior design they were adopted with abandon throughout Europe. A further style, Egyptian, was added to the list in celebration of the campaigns of Napoleon and Nelson. By contrast Classical designs, especially in furniture, showed an elegant simplicity.
Soon, however, Classical architecture was to appear in a richer guise. The precise neo-Greek of Neoclassicism was being replaced by such lavishly columned Graeco-Roman structures as the Madeleine in Paris (1806-42), the British Museum in London (1832-47) and many other, even grander, public buildings from St Petersburg to Naples. Smaller commissions, too, were being executed in elaborately detailed Italian Renaissance styles. This trend was represented in England by the work of Charles Barry (1795-1860), who designed the Travellers' (1829-31) and Reform (1838-40) Clubs, London. His greatest work, the Houses of Parliament (1837-60) in London, though asymmetrical as a Classical palace, was decked inside and out with convincing Gothic detail by his collaborator A.W.N. Pugin (1812-52); it thus became a monument of the first great movement in 19th-century architecture, the Gothic revival.
evival.
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 20th CENTURY
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Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 19th Century (page 2)
ftsTitle
The British Museum, London: a Neoclassical design by Sir Robert Smirke. It was begun in 1823, but the great columned entrance front was completed only in 1847.
Architecture and the Applied Arts
in the 19th Century (2 of 4)
Gothic revival
In the 18th century Gothic architecture had been considered quaintly decorative. But as early as 1772 Goethe had seen Strasbourg Cathedral as a vivid expression of the German soul, and such attitudes later spread to France and England. To Pugin, however, Gothic was supremely the Christian style, which had found its expression in ecclesiastical structures through the spiritual worth of its architects and craftsmen. This religious and moral dimension, echoed in the influential writings of John Ruskin (1819-1900), inspired Pugin's followers to create a vast array of Gothic buildings of all kinds, at their best not imitations at all but posses sing real originality.
In France similar enthusiasm was shown by Eugene Viollet-le-Duc (1814-79), who was certainly one of the most zealous 19th-century restorers of medieval buildings. In Germany Gothic was adopted equally enthusiastically, although it was an Englishman, George Gilbert Scott (1811-78), who designed the first true German Gothic Revival church, the Nikolaikirche, Hamburg (1845-63). Scott was the most successful architect of the Victorian age, producing two of its most typical creations, the Midland Hotel, St Pancras (1866-71), and the Albert Memorial (1863-72), both in London.
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 20th CENTURY
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Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 19th Century (page 3)
ftsTitle
J.F. Bentley's design for Westminster Cathedral, London (1895-1903), was influenced by both Italian and Byzantine architecture. Built of red brick with bands of white stone, it has an asymmetrically placed campanile similar to that on Siena Cathedral, Italy.
Architecture and the Applied Arts
in the 19th Century (3 of 4)
New technology
Scott's claim that the chief principle of architecture was to decorate construction expressed a feeling common among contemporary architects. His St Pancras Hotel is a facade screening the equally magnificent iron and glass vault of the train shed (1863-67).
Cast-iron constructions had been used extensively since the erection of the Iron Bridge, Coalbrookdale (1777-79), both for engineering purposes and to strengthen conventional architecture - even the Albert Memorial was built around a cast-iron core. The most conspicuous example of exposed metal construction was the Eiffel Tower, built for the Paris International Exhibition of 1889.
The combination of iron and glass was also widely used, not just in the railway stations of cities throughout Europe, but in a great variety of other structures, from the Gothic Conservatory (1811-12) of the Prince Regent's Carlton House, London, to the vast shopping arcade of the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, Milan (1865-77), where the consultant engineers were British. But the greatest example was undoubtedly London's Crystal Palace (1850-51; destroyed 1936), created by Joseph Paxton (1801-65) on the model of his conservatories at Chatsworth, Derby shire, on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
The battle of styles
The Great Exhibition had been conceived by Prince Albert as an opportunity for British artists and craftsmen to display their talents in the application of Fine Art to manufactured goods (the ultimate result of the endeavor was the Victoria and Albert Museum). Pugin, who happily applied his virtuous Gothic to interior fittings from wallpaper to door-handles, was well represented with carved furniture and stone fireplaces. But the public was more impressed by the lavish and massive `Jacobethan' pieces, by sideboards writhing with naturalistic ornament and by the bulbously curved forms of neo-Rococo.
Such stylistic variety also characterized the International Exhibitions held in Europe and America during the following decades. French influence was particularly noticeable in interior design, where an often vulgarized version of 18th-century Rococo - known confusingly in England as `Louis Quatorze' - was popular throughout the century. Its architectural equivalent, the only mode of Continental origin to gain currency in Britain, featured steep mansard roofs and rich French Renaissance detail, and was used for buildings such as hotels and town halls. A Baroque elaboration of this style produced such splendid results as the Paris Opera (1861-74), and the wedding cake extravagance of the Victor Emmanuel Monument, Rome (1885-1911).
The Gothic style had opponents even in England, as Scott discovered when Lord Palmerston forced him to produce a Classical design for the Foreign Office, Whitehall (1860-75). New and more original alternatives were also found, such as `Old English' and `Queen Anne'. These hybrid creations combined medieval and Tudor styles, with much half-timbering, and 17th-century details executed in brick; soon, however, the styles became mixed. They were popularized by the work of R. Norman Shaw (1831-1912), who had worked in Gothic and who was to develop a more formal Classical range based on the architecture of Christopher Wren and his contemporaries, and a free handling of Baroque. The varied stylistic experiments of Edwin Lutyens (1869-1944) moved from Old English and `Wrenaissance' to the still more formal Neo-Georgian, a popular British mode.
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Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 19th Century (page 4)
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The London Law Courts: one of the most original of the Gothic buildings designed by Pugin's followers.
` Q Architecture and the Applied Arts
in the 19th Century (4 of 4)
The Arts and Crafts and Aesthetic movements
The medieval vernacular origins of Shaw's and Lutyens' Old English manner gave its products a strong resemblance to those of Arts and Crafts architects. The Arts and Crafts movement was inspired by the vigorous social theories of William Morris (1834-96). Morris thought that the social and artistic levels of industrialism could be transformed by a return to the dignity of medieval craftsmanship and a rationalization of design. He set up a firm to manufacture his own wallpapers and textiles, which replaced elaborate pattern repeats with all-over patterns of flowing, semi-stylized forms more suited to two-dimensional surfaces. His firm also reproduced the furniture of like-minded friends - some of them Pre-Raphaelites - based on traditional rural models. Subdued `natural' tones were preferred to garish colors and vivid contrasts.
During the 1870s the influence of Japanese artifacts, suddenly available in huge quantities in Europe, began to be felt. In France this chiefly affected painting; in Britain the slender shapes of furniture, the stylized and even abstract patterns of textiles and porcelain, and the delicate colors and simple forms of interior design were enthusiastically adopted by the Aesthetic middle classes. It was the heady combination of the Aesthetic and Arts and Crafts movements which led to the creation on the Continent of Art Nouveau.
Equally influential, in Europe and America, was the simple rationalism of Arts and Crafts architecture; here too, however, the simplicity of hand-crafted stone and timber cottages was soon modified by the urban elegance and `art for art's sake' code of the Aesthetes. The architect who most successfully combined simplicity and elegance was C.F.A. Voysey (1857-1941); he quickly developed his characteristic combination of white plastered walls, stone-framed ribbon windows and huge, sweeping slate roofs. His smaller, symmetrically gabled examples provided straightforward, easily imitated models that were adapted to suburban semi-detached houses by British architects for the following 30 years. Some of his more original followers combined Voysey's external style with fluid interior arrangements based on American ideas, prefiguring the open planning revolution of the Modern Movement.
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Realism (page 1)
ftsTitle
Corot's The Gust of Wind (right)(c. 1865-70). In such landscapes as this, Corot looked forward to the spontaneity of the Impressionists. (Musee Saint-Denis, Rheims/Archiv fer Kunst)
Realism (1 of 4)
Realism was a movement that flourished between 1840 and 1880, originating in France, and soon spreading throughout Europe and to America. The Realists reacted against the subjectivity, individualism and historical obsessions of many of the Romantics, adopting instead a style of art based on truth to nature. The grand, heroic subject matter of the Romantic movement was replaced by simple views of everyday life, and Romantic emotionalism was abandoned in favor of detached, objective observation.
The term `realism' applies to both style and subject matter. Usually Realists avoided the vivid, dramatic brushstrokes favored by artists such as Delacroix, preferring to make their paintings distinct and precise, with straightforward subjects. Their motto was, `It is necessary to be of your own time.'
The beginnings of Realism
In France the Revolution of 1848 brought in the Second Republic, overturning the old bourgeois order and replacing it with a more democratic government. The ideals and aims of democracy and socialism were discussed by a number of writers, artists and intellectuals in a Parisian cafe, the Andler Keller. Gustav Courbet (1819-77) attended these meetings and was inspired to represent the new ideas in his art.
Courbet was a largely self-taught artist who wanted to render the outside world as faithfully as possible. He hoped to translate his sense impressions directly onto the canvas, instead of relying on the standard practice of copying the style and subject of Old Masters. In 1850 he created a scandal in Paris with the exhibition of his paintings The Peasants at Flagey Returning from the Fair, The Burial at Ornans and The Stonebreakers.
In these works he showed humble villagers, peasants and laborers, rather than the gods, heroes and biblical figures that the Parisian public was accustomed to as subjects for paintings. The Stonebreakers represents a man too old to be working, and a boy too young to be working. Their clothes are ragged, their faces are obscured; yet through their monumental forms they symbolize the dignity of the working man. Courbet's painting represented his political beliefs and his desire to show the world as it is, rather than as it should be.
* ROMANTICISM
* IMPRESSIONISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM (LITERATURE)
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH CENTURY BRITAIN
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Realism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Courbet's The Burial at Ornans (1849). When exhibited in 1850, this vast canvas - painted at a size normally reserved for `respectable' historical subjects - caused a scandal, with Courbet being accused of deliberately seeking out ugliness.
(Louvre, Paris/Archiv fer Kunst)
Realism (2 of 4)
Realist landscape
Realism also had an impact on landscape. The French painter Camille Corot (1796-1875) was an important link between the idealized Romantic landscape and the landscape painted directly from nature. He made several trips to Italy, and his early works bring a new tonal style to the old traditions of ideal landscape as practiced by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin in the 17th century.
Corot's silvery tonal landscapes were popular in his own time, but he was not satisfied with them. As his style developed, he began to exhibit sketches that he had made out of doors. This move was particularly controversial because landscape painters traditionally made sketches out of doors, but finished the painting in the studio.
Corot was especially influential on the Barbizon School - a group of artists who moved to Barbizon in the Forest of Fontainbleau, southeast of Paris. There they immersed themselves in the study of nature and painted `en plein air' (out of doors), in order to represent nature as faithfully as possible. Theodore Rousseau (1812-67), the leader of the group, favored a rational, almost geological approach to nature. He was interested in the changing effects of weather and tried to capture them on canvas. Charles-Francois Daubigny (1817-78), an artist closely associated with the Barbizon School, had a studio on a boat, which allowed him to float up and down the Oise river making sketches from nature.
* ROMANTICISM
* IMPRESSIONISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM (LITERATURE)
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH CENTURY BRITAIN
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Realism (page 3)
ftsTitle
Millet's The Gleaners (left)(1857). Millet devoted himself to the depiction of the harsh life of French peasants, and the stoical dignity with which they endured it. (Louvre, Paris/Archiv fer Kunst)
Realism (3 of 4)
Millet and the noble peasant
Perhaps the most unusual member of the Barbizon group was Jean-Francois Millet (1814-75). Millet was from a peasant background, and had been raised on a farm. He studied painting in Paris, but his attempts exasperated his teachers and he soon settled into his own distinctive and unusual style. His subjects consisted mainly of peasants working in the fields, sowing, gleaning (gathering left-over corn) or mowing, endowed with grace and dignity by Millet's cool classical style.
In 1849 Millet settled in Barbizon and adopted the ideals of the Barbizon painters, living a life of poverty in a cottage with his wife and 14 children. His noble peasants and calm, peaceful landscapes later influenced Van Gogh.
Painters of modern life
Realism was not confined to landscapes and views of peasant life. The Realists' desire to be modern, rather than historical, led to a series of paintings representing scenes of middle-class life. City life was the main subject in the work of Gustave Caillebotte (1848-94), who painted precise, almost photographic, views of busy Paris streets.
Eugene Boudin (1824-98) applied the plein air methods of Corot and the Barbizon painters to such scenes of fashionable life. Boudin painted a number of landscapes at the beach resorts of Trouville and Deauville and, in contrast to Courbet and Millet, depicted French middle-class, bourgeois society. His paintings influenced Claude Monet, whom he persuaded to become a landscape painter.
Apart from Monet, other Impressionists such as Degas and Renoir adopted Realist modern-life subject matter in their scenes of cafe[ac]s, Paris streets, theaters and parks. Standing somewhat apart from the Impressionists, Edouard Manet took his role as `the painter of modern life' very seriously.
Realism and caricature
The unique contribution of Honore Daumier (1808-79) to Realism was a series of caricatures that combined fantasy with Realism. These often bitter satires attacked both political evils and social foibles. Daumier was arrested and imprisoned in 1832 for publishing a caricature of King Louis Philippe, after which his attacks became less specific, concentrating instead on universal types - doctors, lawyers, businessmen. One of Daumier's recurring character types was Ratapoil, an evil imperialist with a greasy mustache.
European Realism outside France
In 1855 the Exposition Universelle (Universal Exhibition) was held in Paris, and Realist paintings were prominently on display. Artists from many countries saw the works, and soon the Realist movement became international. Britain, Russia, Italy, Germany and Scandinavia all produced examples of Realist art.
In England, William Powell Frith (1819-1909) adopted the fashionable beach scene for his painting of Ramsgate Sands (1854), which was bought by Queen Victoria, and he extended the idea of a modern crowd in works such as Derby Day (1858) and the Railway Station (1862). A more serious form of Realism can be seen in the works of artists such as Luke Fildes (1843-1927) and Hubert Herkomer (1849-1914). Fildes's Applicants for Admission to a Casual Ward shows a group of impoverished and ill patients waiting in the cold for a place in the hospital.
The social beliefs of Ford Madox Brown (1821-93) are embodied in his most famous painting, Work (1852-65). Stylistically Madox Brown was an important influence on the Pre-Raphaelites, although they did not generally depict modern subjects; Holman Hunt's The Awakening Conscience (1853-54) is a notable exception.
In Germany, the first great Realist was Adolph von Menzel (1815-1905), whose style anticipated that of the Impressionists. Also notable are the scenes of village life by Wilhelm Leibl (1844-1900), such as Three Women in Church (1882).
Winslow Homer's Morning Bell (1866-73). Homer had been impressed by the European Impressionists but rendered his light and colors in a different way to them, using clear outlines and broad planes of light and dark.
Realism (4 of 4)
Realism in America
In America, Realism was also known as Naturalism, and its main exponents were Thomas Eakins (1844-1916) and Winslow Homer (1836-1910). Homer began his career as an illustrator for the periodical Harper's Weekly, acting as a war artist during the American Civil War. His views of the front provided a detached impression of the more trivial details of war. In the 1860s and 1870s he painted scenes of rural America, which were influenced by plein air paintings he had seen in France. After a visit to England in 1881, he became fascinated by the sea and seafaring people. He moved to the Maine coast and spent the rest of his life as a recluse, painting views of the coast and coastal life.
Manet's Olympia (1863) caused a major scandal because it dealt with a traditional subject in a shockingly contemporary mode - Manet used a prostitute to masquerade in the pose of a Classical Venus.
Impressionism (1 of 4)
Although often regarded as the first of the modern movements, Impressionism was neither a school nor a movement with a clearly defined program. Instead it is better regarded as an ill-defined association of artists who joined together for the purpose of mounting independent group exhibitions, rather than compromise their art in order to be included in the Paris Salon, the official state-sponsored exhibition. While they had no stated aims or manifesto their work shared some techniques and certain subjects. Neoimpressionism had little to do with Impressionism although its two chief exponents, Seurat and Signac, exhibited with the Impressionist group. It was much more clearly systematized than Impressionism and drew on current scientific research - such as the interest in color theory - in a much more coherent way than that adopted by painters in the Impressionist circle.
* REALISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM
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Impressionism (page 2)
ftsTitle
In the Luncheon of the Boating Party (1881), as in many of his other paintings, Renoir celebrates the good things in life. His favorite subjects were children, pretty women and flowers, which he painted in a lively, colorful style with feathery brushwork.
Impressionism (2 of 4)
Manet and the Salon des Refuses
The French artist Edouard Manet (1832-83) is frequently linked with the Impressionist group although he declined ever to exhibit with these artists and shared few of their artistic aspirations. He continued to strive for success and recognition at the all-important Salon, producing large-scale canvases painted entirely in the studio using heavy earth colors and rich, velvety blacks, all of which were to be abandoned by the members of the Impressionist group.
After an early success at the Salon of 1861 with his painting The Spanish Guitar Player, the paintings Manet submitted to the Salon of 1863 were refused, along with thousands of others. Since artists depended largely on the Salon to attract potential customers at a time before the private dealer was a common phenomenon, there was a tremendous outcry at this apparent injustice. Eventually the Emperor Napoleon III decreed that a counter-exhibition should be hung - alongside the official Salon - in which the public could judge for themselves the merits of the refused works. This was the Salon des Refuses and the work which aroused the most hostile reaction at this exhibition was Manet's Dejeuner sur l'herbe (`Picnic on the grass', 1863).
Despite its apparently innocuous subject, the painting evoked strong feelings in its viewers because Manet had chosen to rework a classical theme - the nude in a landscape - and place it within a clearly identifiable modern setting. Because of the presence of the two men in modern dress and the direct gaze of the seated woman, the painting was seen to portray two prostitutes with their clients. A similar scandal was caused at the next official Salon (1865), where Manet exhibited his Olympia (1863).
While the Impressionist painters did not by and large share Manet's subject matter nor his techniques, they recognized that in the late 1860s and 1870s he was the leader of the artistic avant-garde in Paris, both because of his forceful painting style and also because of his uncompromising stance against hallowed art institutions.
* REALISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM
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ftsTitleOverride
Impressionism (page 3)
ftsTitle
Degas' Ballet School (below left). Degas' composition, with its oddly cut-off figures, shows the influence of photography on his work.
(Archiv fer Kunst)
Impressionism (3 of 4)
Impressionist style
In the summer of 1869 the French painters Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) worked together at a popular bathing spot known as La Grenouillere on the River Seine just outside Paris. Painting in collaboration, they produced a series of canvases that are generally regarded as being the first examples of the fully developed Impressionist style.
Artists began to produce finished paintings, rather than mere sketches, in the open air (`en plein air'). This meant that their canvases had to be much smaller and more intimate than the large works Manet sent to the Salon. In order to represent the effect of sunlight on water they used the characteristic `broken' brushstroke, in which dabs of pure pigment were laid side by side on the canvas rather than smoothly modeled as had previously been the case. Unlike Manet, they eliminated all the earth colors, and particularly black, from their palettes and concentrated instead on the three primaries (red, yellow and blue) and their immediate derivatives. They observed that the colors of objects were modified by their surroundings and introduced color reflections into the shadows. Although the essential features of the Impressionist style were formed by 1869, it was another five years before the first group exhibition gave the group any kind of coherent identity.
* REALISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM
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ftsTitleOverride
Impressionism (page 4)
ftsTitle
Seurat's The Circus. (Jeu de Paume, Paris/Scala)
Impressionism (4 of 4)
The first exhibition
Although the idea of a group exhibition had been considered for some time, it was not until 1874 that the first Impressionist exhibition was held at the studio of the photographer Nadar. They were motivated partly by disillusionment at their persistent rejections at the Salon and partly out of a desire for sales. The 39 artists exhibiting included not only Monet and Renoir but also Paul Cezanne), Edgar Degas (1834-1917), Berthe Morisot (1841-95), Camille Pissarro (1831-1903) and Alfred Sisley (1839-99). At later exhibitions they were joined by the American Mary Cassatt (1844-1926), Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat (1859-91) and Paul Signac (1863-1935). At the exhibition of 1874 they called themselves the `societe anonyme des artistespeintres, sculptors, graveurs' - that is they formed a limited company. It was not until later that they adopted the name `Impressionists' for themselves. However, the name `Impressionist' had been coined at the 1874 show by the critic Louis Leroy in response to a work by Monet entitled Impression: Sunrise. This depicted boats in a port seen through a mist, which led to a dissolution of form and complete lack of detail or description. Leroy was so incensed at the apparent sloppiness of the work that he failed to see that the painting's real subject was a faithful rendition of an atmosphere. Taking the name `Impressionist' from the offending work he extended it to the group as a whole.
Further exhibitions
In all there were eight exhibitions of the Impressionist group, held from 1874 to 1886. Of the original group, only Pissarro exhibited at all eight, and by the time of the last their character had changed fundamentally with the inclusion of artists such as Gauguin, Seurat and Signac, whose contributions were not always admired by some of the older artists.
Impressionist subject matter
Monet, Sisley and Pissarro favored landscapes; Pissarro's The Harvest at Montfoucault (1876), shown at the third exhibition, is a depiction of timeless rural activity, while Monet's Arrival of the Normandy Train at Gare Saint-Lazare (1877) takes its inspiration from the rapidly industrializing French capital. This canvas was also shown at the 1877 exhibition and represented the glass roof of the station filled with smoke from the approaching train.
Renoir produced a number of figure studies and Degas in particular shunned the notion of working in the open, preferring instead to work in the traditional manner, finishing canvases in his studio from rough sketches done on the spot. He produced a number of oil paintings that took horse racing as their theme, and specialized in ballet scenes.
NEOIMPRESSIONISM
At the final Impressionist exhibition, Seurat, Signac and Pissarro all showed canvases using the latest divisionist (or pointillist) techniques. This involved the use of pure colors applied in such small patches (often dots) that they appeared to fuse to form an intermediary tone when viewed from an appropriate distance. Hence grass might be composed of touches of blue alongside areas of yellow. These ideas were not new, but had been used in a much less systematic way by the Impressionist painters. However, the technique also produced an effect of greater luminosity than if the colors had been physically mixed together.
d together.
together.
* REALISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM
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Post-Impressionism and Fauvism (page 1)
ftsTitle
Gauguin's Ea Haere la Oe (Where are you going?). In his Tahitian period Gauguin often combined mysterious subjects with vivid experiments in color and line.
Post-Impressionism and Fauvism (1 of 3)
Just as the Impressionists reacted against the established art of their day, a succession of artists later reacted against Impressionism itself. The Post-Impressionists, as they became known, were active mainly in France between about 1880 and 1905. They included artists who painted in a wide variety of styles but who shared a desire to go beyond pure naturalism and to give more emphasis to color, emotions and imagination. From these individuals the major art movements of the 20th century emerged. The term Post-Impressionism was first used by the British critic and artist Roger Fry when he arranged an exhibition entitled `Manet and the Post-Impressionists' in London in 1910. The principal artists in this exhibition were Cezanne, Gauguin and van Gogh; according to Fry these were the three great artists who had moved beyond Impressionism in the search for a new art. Also included were paintings by the Neoimpressionists Seurat and Signac, Redon, Picasso, Matisse, Derain, Vlaminck, Rouault, and Marquet. In 1912 Fry arranged a second Post-Impressionist exhibition and the term later grew to include the Fauves (see below) and the Neoimpressionists as well as artists from other countries who had not been included in Fry's exhibitions.
* IMPRESSIONISM AND NEO IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
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ftsTitleOverride
Post-Impressionism and Fauvism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Cezanne painted Mont Sainte-Victoire countless times. His works - embodying his aim to `treat nature in terms of the cylinder, the sphere, the cone' - were a crucial influence on the Cubists. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York/Archiv fer Kunst)
Post-Impressionism and Fauvism (2 of 3)
Post-Impressionism in France
As a young man, Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) painted dark romantic pictures, often using a palette knife to depict scenes of violence and eroticism. In the early 1870s, encouraged by the Impressionist Camille Pissarro, he began to work out of doors and gradually lightened his palette. Cezanne soon developed away from the Impressionists and their depictions of a fleeting moment in time, which he felt resulted in a lack of structure. Like the Impressionists he wanted to paint directly from nature, but also to recapture the grandeur and order of the masters of Classicism such as Poussin. Part of his greatness lies in his struggle to combine these two aims and to achieve a monumental, timeless fusion of forms. Cezanne spent most of his life in the south of France, where he mainly painted still lifes and landscapes - often depicting Mont Sainte-Victoire, a mountain near his native town of Aix.
Like those of Cezanne, the early works of Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) were dark in color. These works - the most famous of which is The Potato Eaters (1885) - reflect the plight of poor peasants at work in his native Netherlands. After moving to Paris in 1886 he adopted the brighter colors of the Impressionists. Van Gogh's most powerful works were painted after 1888, when he moved to Arles in Provence. In numerous self-portraits and landscapes his emotions are conveyed through brilliant colors, thick paint and strong rhythmic brushstrokes. He was subject to periodic fits of depression and eventually committed suicide.
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) gave up his life as a prosperous Parisian businessman to become a painter. He lived in Brittany, Martinique, Tahiti and finally the Marquesas Islands, attracted by the apparently simple life of these communities. In monumental compositions such as Nevermore (1897), forms are portrayed as broad flat areas of rich color surrounded by sinuous lines. Like van Gogh, Gauguin used color for emotional rather than naturalistic effect, although Gauguin was closer to the Symbolists.
The turn of the 19th century was a period of great developments in art. Cezanne, van Gogh and Gauguin all influenced subsequent art movements, including Symbolism and Expressionism, Fauvism (see below) and Cubism (where Cezanne's influence was central). However, individualism also flourished and many artists appeared who cannot easily be grouped into schools. Henri Rousseau (1844-1910), known as `Le Douanier' because of his job in the Paris Customs service, was self-taught and was the first untrained, `naive' painter to win recognition as a major artist. He painted pictures of great clarity and brightness, which, despite his know ledge of perspective, are full of subtlety and charm. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901) was influenced by Degas and took his subjects from Parisian music halls and brothels. His style was at its most effective in the simplified lines of such poster designs as Moulin Rouge (1891).
Post-Impressionism in Britain
Despite initial public hostility to the London exhibitions, British artists were soon influenced by the new European art. Walter Sickert (1860-1942) and the Camden Town Group applied the new approach to their paintings of lower-class London life, while the Bloomsbury artists also looked to the continent for inspiration.
The Intimists
The French painters Pierre Bonnard (1864-1947) and Edouard Vuillard(1868-1940) were both retiring in character and concentrated chiefly on depicting their immediate environments. Intimate interior scenes of bourgeois life, informal portraits and nudes were their chief subjects. Many of Vuillard's paintings show his mother, while Bonnard frequently used his wife as a model.
* IMPRESSIONISM AND NEO IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
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ftsTitleOverride
Post-Impressionism and Fauvism (page 3)
ftsTitle
Van Gogh's Wheatfields, executed in the typically turbulent brush strokes and expressive colors of his late works.
o Post-Impressionism and Fauvism (3 of 3)
Matisse and the Fauves
Another Frenchman, Henri Matisse (1869-1954), was one of the most important and influential artists of the early 20th century. He was a master of color and line as well as a major sculptor and illustrator. In his paintings of female nudes, still lifes and interiors, Matisse combined a sensitivity of line with decorative pattern and rich flat color. In 1908 Matisse wrote, `What I dream of is an art of balance, of purity and serenity devoid of troubling or distressing subject matter'. In his later years, unable to paint, Matisse made large compositions from brilliantly colored paper cut-outs.
With Andre Derain (1880-1954), Matisse was the founder of Fauvism, the first modern movement of the 20th century. Matisse's colors became brighter after he painted with the Neoimpressionist painter Signac at Saint Tropez in 1904. The following year he worked in the south of France with Derain (who had been influenced by van Gogh), and their paintings were transformed into explosions of bold brushstrokes and brilliant colors.
When their works were exhibited at the Salon D'Automne in Paris in 1905 the name fauves (`wild beasts') was given to them by the critic Louis Vauxcelles. He was not referring to the artists' characters, but to their bold shocking colors. The only Fauve who could be described as wild in character was Maurice de Vlaminck (1876-1958), a professional cyclist whose love of speed was reflected in the immediacy of his paintings - he frequently used thick pigment squeezed directly from the tube on to the canvas.
One of the artists connected with the Fauves for a short period was Raoul Dufy (1877-1953). He soon abandoned Fauvism, but retained bright colors throughout his life in his cheerful scenes of race courses and the seaside. Under Matisse's influence Albert Marquet (1875-1947) used bright Fauve colors in his paintings of flag-lined streets and seaside bill boards, but soon turned to carefully composed atmospheric scenes in muted tones that seem to look back to the Impressionists. The Dutch artist Kees van Dongen (1877-1968) painted scenes of Parisian night life in bold Fauve colors. George Rouault (1871-1958) exhibited with the Fauves but did not belong to the movement; his paintings of human corruption and religious images, with their deep glowing colors, place him closer to Expressionism.
* IMPRESSIONISM AND NEO IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
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p546-1
ftsTitleOverride
Symbolism, Secession and Expressionism (page 1)
ftsTitle
Klimt's The Kiss (1908) makes use of flat decorative pattern and gold leaf.
Symbolism, Secession and Expressionism (1 of 3)
The Symbolist movement emerged in the 1880s as a reaction against the naturalist movement (the idea that art was an imitation of nature) and against modern industrialism and materialist values. The Symbolists sought to escape into the past or into the world of fantasy, including dreams. They believed that art existed alongside, not in direct relation to, the real world, and that it had its own rules.
The anti-naturalism of the Symbolists was also shared by many of the artists of the German and Austrian Secessions of the 1890s, and by a diverse group of later artists known as the Expressionists, who wished to emphasize - often through unnaturalistic distortion - the importance of emotion and the artist's inner vision. Expressionism was also an important movement in cinema and drama.
Symbolism in France
Symbolism in art was linked to a legacy of Romanticism in art and literature. In 1857 the poet Charles Baudelaire published Les Fleurs du Mal . Among the subjects that he treated was Salome, the temptress and ultimate femme fatale. The subject of Salome was depicted many times by Gustave Moreau (1826-98) in pictures such as The Apparition, which he submitted to the Paris Salon of 1876. Its jewel-like colors and extravagant, ornamental details, together with its atmosphere of mystery and menace, were characteristic of his anti-naturalistic approach. The femme fatale - seductive, exotic and evil - was to become a recurrent theme in Symbolist art of the so-called `decadent' kind.
The work of Odilon Redon (1840-1916) dealt with fantastic subject matter, dream or nightmare imagery and strange, hallucinatory beings in a mixture of the emotional and the irrational. He worked almost exclusively in black and white until around 1890, when he began making pastels and oil paintings in radiant colors. Moreau and Redon pioneered the way to Symbolism in art in France and were especially influential in suggesting the existence of a mysterious reality beyond appearances.
Another particularly influential figure was Paul Gauguin , who turned away from Impressionism in the late 1880s and started to work from memory and imagination, using bold, rhythmical outlines and arbitrary colors. His figure compositions from then on have an air of ambiguity and mystery.
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
* IMPRESSIONISM AND NEO IMPRESSIONISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
Moreau's The Apparition (1876) portrays Salome - the ultimate femme fatale - witnessing a vision of the head of John the Baptist.
Symbolism, Secession and Expressionism (2 of 3)
Symbolism in England
In England, the Pre-Raphaelite paintings produced by Dante Gabriel Rossetti were an important source. Rossetti's works, filled with poetic feelings of suppressed sexuality and depicting visions of the Middle Ages in a highly decorative manner, were a major influence on Sir Edward Burne-Jones (1833-98) and Aubrey Beardsley (1872-98), among others. Beardsley produced fluid yet economical black-and-white drawings as illustrations for literary works such as Salome by Oscar Wilde and Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory (both 1894). His drawings were often sexually explicit.
The Secessions
In Austria and Germany in the 1890s the growing revolt against the academicism of conventional painting led to the formation of Secessions - breakaway groups of artists. The first was formed in Munich in 1892 in protest against the overcrowding and lack of selectiveness of the official salons. That of Berlin-led by Max Liebermann (1847-1935) and Lovis Corinth (1858-1925), who were pioneering the German version of Impressionism - was sparked off by the hostility of academic painters towards new art.
It was the Vienna Secession (1897), led by Gustav Klimt (see below), that was the most radical. It was successful in its aim of promoting and encouraging Austrian painters, architects and craftsmen. The major styles of the artists of the Vienna Secession were Symbolism and Jugend stil, the German and Austrian form of Art Nouveau. The independent nature of the Secessions paved the way for later artists' groups such as Die Brecke and Der Blaue Reiter.
Precursors of Expressionism
Expressionism as a movement reached a peak around 1910. There were, however, earlier artists whose work showed an approach that attempted not just to depict the visual, but to express the emotional. Expressionist styles varied, although there was a general tendency towards distorted forms and unnaturalistic colors. Van Gogh was an important influence.
The Norwegian Edvard Munch (1863-1944) produced paintings and prints whose subject matter and its treatment could be described as hysterical, neurotic and intense. In works such as The Scream (1893) he portrayed anxiety, fear and despair, not only in the shrieking figure, but also in the tortured sky. In Munch's work, the turbulence of the paint often enhances the powerful subjects of love, sickness and death. James Ensor (1860-1949), a Belgian artist, included grotesque elements such as skeletons and carnival masks in his works, giving them a latent black humor. Executed in thick paint and sometimes close to caricature, they are often seen as Expressionistic.
In Austria the development from Symbolism to Expressionism via Jugendstil can be seen in the work of three artists. Gustav Klimt (1863-1918), produced highly decorative paintings in which erotic female images are combined with areas of luxuriant, mosaic-like Jugendstil patterning.
Although badly received by the public, Klimt's work was an important influence on Egon Schiele (1890-1918) and Oskar Kokoschka (1886-1980). Despite his brief career, Schiele became one of the major Austrian Expressionists. He is famous for his contorted and often sexually explicit nudes, which frequently convey a psychological tension. Kokoschka's many portraits and figure compositions, such as The Tempest (Bride of the Wind) (1914), are treated with a nervous linearity through which he tried to reveal the subject's intimate feelings and neuroses.
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
* IMPRESSIONISM AND NEO IMPRESSIONISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
The artists' group known as Die Brecke (`The Bridge') was formed in Dresden in 1905, and lasted until 1913. Its members included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938), Erich Heckel (1883-1970), Karl Schmidt-Rotluff (1884-1976), Max Pech stein (1881-1955) and, for a short time, Emil Nolde (1867-1956). The group was united by a desire to create a revolutionary new art, and their name signified their hope that this new art would serve as a bridge to the future. The bridge motif often appeared in paintings and prints by the group's members.
The artists of Die Brecke were influenced by Gauguin and the Fauves, and also by African sculpture and German medieval woodcuts (a medium they revived). Though to some extent the German equivalent of Fauvism, their work was deliberately rougher and cruder, with broken, unnaturalistic colors and heavily expressive, stylized forms.
Another independent group that gave German Expressionism further impetus was Der Blaue Reiter (`The Blue Rider'), formed in Munich in 1911. The members included the Russian Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), August Macke ( 1887-1914) and Franz Marc (1880-1916), and the name of the group derives from the cover of their periodical - designed by Kandinsky and Marc - which depicted a horse and rider in blue and black. Der Blaue Reiter was a more varied group than Die Brecke and, rather than promoting one particular tendency, its aim was for each artist to achieve an individual style. They did, however, share a use of bold colors and a tendency to develop towards abstraction. The death of Marc and Macke during World War I led to the group's dissolution. Although the Russian Alexej Jawlensky (1864-1941) never joined Der Blaue Reiter, his work was in a similar vein. Works such as Head of a Young Girl show a use of bold outlines and deep rich colors.
For many artists the trauma of World War I had a powerful effect on their work. The pre-war works of the German Max Beckmann (1884-1950) had already shown Expressionist tendencies, but it was works such as The Night (1918-19) that had the greatest impact, depicting the horror of torture in a Germany under going radical changes and uprisings. The stylized figures crowded together in a shallow space resemble German late Gothic wood carvings. George Grosz (1893-1959), a painter and draughtsman who had been a member of the BerlinDada group, similarly tackled contemporary issues and subjects such as the decadent capitalism of the Weimar Republic. His satirical caricatures were especially savage. The rise of Nazism in Germany, and later in Austria, led to the work of many leading artists being attacked as `degenerate'. They were banned from exhibiting, and a number of them fled abroad.
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
* IMPRESSIONISM AND NEO IMPRESSIONISM
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* SILENT FILMS
* SYMBOLISM (IN LITERATURE)
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATRE
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Cubism and Abstraction (page 1)
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The Laugh (1911) by Umberto Boccioni, who believed that objects had their own. His ideas led him to almost pure abstraction, but his works always show his interest in speed and motion.
Cubism and Abstraction (1 of 2)
In the first half of the 20th century a revolution occurred in the practice of art. The Cubists led this revolution by breaking with the convention that art should provide a faithful representation of the world. From 1910 artists in different countries began to produce abstract or non-figurative art, sometimes abstracting from a landscape or still life until the subject disappeared.
At other times they produced an art that had no obvious reference to the real world. In this so-called non-objective art, all connection with objective reality has been severed and the work of art becomes the expression of the artist's personal perception.
Early Cubism
Cubism, one of the most important movements in 20th-century art, was originated in France by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso (1881-1973; and the Frenchman Georges Braque (1882-1963). The movement lasted from about 1907 into the 1920s and, as with Impressionism and Fauvismand, the term Cubism' was coined by a critic and intended to be derogatory. Following the example of Cezanne, the Cubists sought new answers to the age-old question of how to depict the three-dimensional real world on a flat two-dimensional canvas. They began to analyze objects, breaking them down into their geometrical shapes and restructuring them in order to show each form's many facets in a single image. They were therefore representing what is known about an object rather than what is actually seen. These early Analytical Cubist works, as they became known, generally depict either single figures or still lifes and were painted in a restricted range of greys and browns.
The Cubists were also influenced by the recently discovered African Negro art and this is first exemplified in the right-hand side of Picasso's Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), where two faces have been broken down into simple, mask-like forms.
Later Cubism
From 1909 to 1913 Picasso and Braque worked in close association and their works during this period were so similar that it is often difficult to differentiate between them. By 1910-11 their paintings had developed to a point where they were almost abstract meshes of color and line - the subject was identifiable only by a few clues, such as a pipe, a mustache or the indication of a chair back. To combat this move towards abstraction the artists began to add references to the real world, firstly by adding lettering or by simulating actual textures such as wood or fabric. Eventually even sand and newspaper cuttings were glued to the canvas to make a collage (from the French coller, to glue). Brighter colors were used in this phase, which was known as Synthetic Cubism.
Several important artists worked in these styles early on in their careers. Fernand Leger (1881-1955) took the modern mechanical world as the subject for his Cubist works. The Spanish artist Juan Gris (1887-1927) is regarded by some as the originator of Synthetic Cubism; and the paintings of Robert Delaunay (1885- 1941) are Cubist in origin but composed in the pure colors of the spectrum.
trum.
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* DADA AND SURREALISM
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ftsTitleOverride
Cubism and Abstraction (page 2)
ftsTitle
Picasso in Cannes in 1960.
Cubism and Abstraction (2 of 2)
Developments outside France
Futurism was founded in Italy by the poet Filippo Marinetti, who proclaimed the Futurists' revolutionary aims in their first manifesto of 1909. He urged artists to turn their backs on the art of the past and to seek inspiration from industrial society and the dynamism of modern life. He wrote, We declare that the splendor of the world has been enriched with a new form of beauty, the beauty of speed . . . a race-automobile which seems to rush over exploding powder is more beautiful than the Victory of Samothrace' (this last being a much-admired Classical statue).
The Futurists wanted to apply these aims to all aspects of life, and the movement included poets and designers as well as painters and architects. In order to realize their aim of depicting objects in motion, the Futurists made use first of Divisionist and later of Cubist techniques. By painting successive movements simultaneously, artists such as Giacomo Balla (1871-1958) and Carlo Carra (1881-1966) were able to suggest dynamic movement. Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916) sought to depict feelings or states of mind through broken strokes of color, as in The Laugh (1911). Later, many of the Futurists were to become associated with the emergent Italian Fascist party. The Rayonist movement in Russia owed a considerable debt to the Futurists. During the years 1912 to 1914 artists such as Natalia Goncharova (1881-1962) combined the influences of Cubism and Futurism in their works, which are characterized by almost abstract diagonal rays of color.
The Vorticists shared some of the revolutionary aims of the Futurists, and the crisp geometrical forms and jagged lines of their works reflect the aggressive nature of this British group. The term Vorticism' was coined by the American poet Ezra Pound and the movement's aims were expressed in the periodical Blast. Wyndham Lewis (1882-1957) was the leader of the movement and his Workshop (c. 1914-15) comes close to abstraction. David Bomberg (1890-1957) was not a member of the Vorticist group, but his Mud Bath (1914) has an agitated rhythm that is typically Vorticist, as is the half-man, half-machine sculpture Rock Drill (1913-14) by Jacob Epstein (1880-1959). Vorticism did not survive World War I and its leading sculptor, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (1891- 1915), was killed in action.
Abstraction before World War II
By about 1910, a greater emphasis on color and form rather than subject matter had led many artists from different countries to move towards abstraction. Some, such as the Russian Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), approached abstraction through Expressionism. Others, like the Dutchman Piet Mondrian (1872-1944), developed through Cubism, abstracting from a tree or a windmill until the original subject almost completely disappeared. Mondrian gradually restricted his colors and used only vertical and horizontal lines in his compositions. The other members of the Dutch De Stijl movement, to which Mondrian belonged, also worked in geometrical abstract shapes, as did the artists of the Russian Suprematist movement, which was founded by Kasimir Malevich (1878-1935) in 1915.
It was another Russian artist, Naum Gabo (1890-1977), who, with his brother Antoine Pevsner (1886-1962), co-founded the abstract movement Constructivism. Gabo used plastic and other new man-made materials to construct completely abstract sculptures that have something of the character of mathematical models. Far less rigorous in his abstraction was the Swiss painter Paul Klee (1879-1940), whose playful, witty works are rarely entirely abstract.
Romanian by birth, but working for most of his life in France, Constantin Brancusi (1876-1957) usually took a shape, such as a head or a bird, as a starting point and gradually simplified it until he had eliminated all inessential details, arriving at an almost abstract form of great purity. Amedeo Modigliani (1884-1920) worked with Brancusi and, although he was not an abstract artist, his stylized, elongated heads echo the same shapes.
During the 1930s, the painter Ben Nicholson (1894-1982) and the sculptors Henry Moore (1898-1986) and Barbara Hepworth (1903-75) tried to bring Britain into line with its continental neighbors. All had visited France and were aware of the current developments towards abstraction.
PICASSO
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) was the outstanding artistic genius of the 20th century. His inventiveness in discovering new ways of expression were unparalleled, dominating art for the first half of the century and influencing numerous artists worldwide.
Picasso was born in Malaga in Spain, and although he lived for most of his life in France he remained conscious of his origins. His horror at the Spanish Civil War inspired the violent and monumental Guernica (1937), one of his greatest works.
Because of the great diversity of his work, it is usual to divide Picasso's career into various stages. His first important works are the melancholy depictions of social outcasts, such as The Old Guitarist (1903), from his Blue Period' (1901-04), and the softer depictions of circus people from his Rose Period' (1905-07). These were followed by his brilliant contributions to the development of Cubism.
At various times in his career Picasso worked simultaneously in different styles. In the early 1920s he painted massive classical figures of bathers, and in the 1930s he exhibited with the Surrealists. Some of his most emotionally distorted images date from the pre-war and war years: in Weeping Woman (1937) he savagely tears the subject apart in a manner quite unlike the careful dissection of the Cubist years.
Picasso's genius was not confined to painting; his prints and sculptures also demonstrate a great originality. He assembled some of them from found objects, which he imaginatively transformed. In the late 1940s Picasso added the production of ceramics to his activities. His late paintings were executed with great vigor in a summary, sketchy style and were sometimes based on famous works by Velasquez, Rembrandt and Manet.
brandt and Manet.
* POST-IMPRESSIONISM
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* DADA AND SURREALISM
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Dada and Surrealism (page 1)
ftsTitle
A Dada parody of a sheet music cover (1921), offering Fox Trots for Idiots with words by Dada Beda and music by Ober-DaDa Hajos. The Dada movement was in large part a reaction against bourgeois values.
Dada and Surrealism (1 of 2)
The aftermath of World War I brought a crisis of faith in a society whose intellectual and moral values were held responsible for the appalling destruction of the war. There already existed a growing revolt against traditional values, derived from the writings of Darwin, Marx and Freud. Two art movements that grew out of this climate were Dada and Surrealism. Although they were essentially different in purpose and character, some common ground existed, and a number of Dada artists later joined the Surrealist movement.
Dada was international and was a state of mind' rather than a coherent artistic movement. It rejected existing social values and art as products of the existing order. Instead Dada was anarchistic, outrageous and deliberately provocative, aiming to shock people out of a state of complacency. Dada sought to create an art freed from the values and ideas that had preceded it, and so was simultaneously art and anti-art.
Zurich Dada
Dada was born in neutral Switzerland in 1916, where a group of young writers, poets and artists had converged in Zurich. Founded by the playwright and actor Hugo Ball (1880-1927), it was officially launched at the Cabaret Voltaire, a nightclub and venue for Dada activities. The name Dada is thought to have been chosen at random from a French- German dictionary by the writer Richard Huelsenbeck (1892-1973) and means child's rocking horse.
Dada was a heterogeneous movement embracing literature, the visual arts and performance. Ball believed that conventional language in poetry, like the human figure in painting, was an outmoded form of expression, and introduced abstract poetry consisting of made-up words that relied for their effect entirely on their sound and rhythm.
Tristan Tzara (1886-1963), a Romanian poet, was the main spokesman for the group. His experiments included using words cut out from newspapers and then arranged at random in order to create poems.
There is a visual equivalent of this use of chance in the work of the Dada artist Jean (Hans) Arp (1887-1966), an Alsatian who arrived in Zurich in 1915. Between 1916 and 1917 he experimented with torn pieces of colored paper scattered randomly on a paper background. He stated that These works like nature were ordered according to the laws of chance . . .'.
New York Dada
The French artist Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968) embarked in 1911 on a version of Cubism that became more and more eccentric, with mechanical and intestinal forms. Together with the Frenchman Francis Picabia (1879-1953) he began to depict imaginary machines that often had an erotic character. In 1915 both Duchamp and Picabia moved temporarily to New York, where they became the focus of a proto-Dada movement that was joined by the American Man Ray (1890-1976). Duchamp had largely given up painting by this time, apart from work on his masterpiece, The Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelors, Even (1915-23), which is partly a fantastic and ironic mechanical diagram of sexual intercourse. He also carried on the practice he had started in Paris in 1913 of designating selected everyday objects - such as a hat rack or a urinal - as works of art, terming them ready-mades'.
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* MOVEMENTS IN ART SINCE 1945
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM (LITERATURE)
Outline
Encyclopedia
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Dada and Surrealism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Salvador Dali at work. In addition to painting, Dali spent much of his time designing theater sets, interiors and fashionable shops and jewelry, as well as exhibiting his genius for self-promotional stunts.
Dada and Surrealism (2 of 2)
German Dada
In 1917 Richard Huelsenbeck returned to Berlin, where he found an atmosphere of disillusionment. He was joined by the painters Raoul Hausmann (1886-1971), George Grosz (1893-1959) and Hannah Hoch (1889-1978), and a Club Dada was formed. More political in nature than Dada groups in the other centers, it quickly took on a Communist direction.
The influence of Cubist collage is evident in the Dadaists' development of photomontage, a collage technique using photographs and words. It was used by Hausmann, Grosz and John Heartfield (Helmut Herzfelde, 1891-1968), a German artist who had anglicized his name to show his sympathy with America.
In Hanover, Kurt Schwitters (1887-1948) developed a variant of Dada which he called Merz. The name was taken from the word Commerzbank' found on a torn piece of paper. Schwitters collected rubbish - such as cigarette wrappers, tickets, and newspapers - to incorporate into his collages, known as Merzbilden.
Max Ernst (1891-1976) was the major exponent of Dada in Cologne. His work was rooted in Late Gothic fantasy drawn from Grenewald and Bosch and included series of collages such as Here Everything is Still Floating (1920), in which images from such sources as 19th-century steel engravings were pasted together to create dreamlike scenes. He later made paintings that had a similar character.
Paris Dada
In 1919 Tzara arrived in Paris, Duchamp returned from New York and Dadaists from other European cities descended on the French capital. In 1920 a Paris Dada group was launched with a manifesto by Picabia. The French writer Andre Breton (1896-1966) had been contributing to Dada publications since 1918 and Tzara had begun to write for Breton's periodical Litterature. The Dada spectacles and noisy demonstrations that took place drew large crowds and were even more extravagant than before. After 1920 Breton, increasingly frustrated by Dada's anarchic activities, broke away and established a group of writers - including many former Dadaists - which later became the Surrealist group. By 1920 the Dada group had almost totally disbanded.
Surrealism
Surrealism was founded in Paris in 1924 in reaction to the rationalism and materialism of Western society. Breton's theories were derived from his reading of Freud's psychoanalytical experiments. The potential of the subconscious mind as a source of fantastic and dreamlike images was central to the Surrealists' interests. Breton defined Surrealism in the first Surrealist Manifesto (1924) as Pure psychic automatism, by which it is intended to express, verbally, in writing, or by other means, the real process of thought. Thought dictated in the absence of all control exercised by reason, outside any aesthetic or moral preoccupation.' Art and literature were viewed as a means of expressing the fusion of the seemingly contradictory states of dream and reality into a sort of absolute reality, a surreality'.
The movement was revolutionary in spirit and from 1925 gravitated towards the Communist party. Subsequently the Communists disassociated themselves from the Surrealists because of an ever-widening and unbridgeable gap in their respective aims.
In the visual arts Surrealism took two directions. The first adapted the automatic writing techniques of the Surrealist poets in order to liberate the mind from conscious control and produce a flow of ideas from the subconscious. The works produced in this way could be either abstract or figurative. The other stream was based on elaborate, meticulously detailed reconstructions of a dream world in which objects were often placed in unexpected juxtaposition. Both reflected the Surrealists' interest in the use of chance. They greatly admired the Comte de Lautreamont (1846-80), a 19th-century poet, and his simile Beautiful as the chance encounter of a sewing machine and an umbrella on an operating table' became their touchstone. The pioneer of this approach in painting was the Italian Giorgio de Chirico (1888-1928), whose early work of about 1912-17 was highly influential. De Chirico painted dreamlike visions of Italian piazzas, in which he introduced enigmatic imagery - classical statues, tailor's dummies, trains, gloves.
The automatic painters
In 1925, Ernst invented the new technique of frottage. Rubbings were taken from textured surfaces such as wooden floorboards, leaves or ropes and used to suggest fantastic images as in Forest and Dove (1927). Many of his paintings employ a method known as decalomania. This involved placing paint on a surface such as glass, metal or shiny paper and then pressing this onto a canvas or paper support. The shapes and forms in the resulting impression could then be developed imaginatively.
In 1924 the Spanish painter Joan Mir (1893-1983) joined the Surrealists. In The Harlequin's Carnival (1924-25), he crossed the boundary between, on the one hand, observation of the external model' and, on the other, freely invented signs flowing from the subconscious. Though based on drawings made in a state of hallucination induced by hunger, its composition is highly organized through the intervention of conscious control.
Andre Masson (1896-1987) was the first surrealist artist to surrender himself to trance-like states as part of his working method, as seen in the drawings he began to make from around 1924. The images he created suggest brutal forces in nature as in Battle of the Fishes (1927). Technically this work is important, not only in the automatic drawing which is then consciously reworked, but in the way paint is poured onto the surface, a method which later influenced the Abstract Expressionists.
The oneiric (dream) painters
Rene Magritte (1898-1967) rejected as unauthentic the supposed spontaneity of automatism because it appeared to be contrived and mechanical. Instead he began to work with images that often appeared stiffly conventional at first sight, but which were given a bizarre, dreamlike character by wildly impossible juxtapositions or changes of scale.
In 1929 Salvador Dali (1904-89) became an official member of the Surrealist group and gave it a new impetus with his method of paranoiac-critical activity, which combined the delusions associated with paranoia with a certain degree of objective detachment and control. Dali was particularly interested in abnormal mental conditions and, in particular, hallucinations. His strange dream imagery was depicted in sharp focus and as realistically as possible in a mode of painting that resembled color photography.
Dali's contribution to Surrealism also included the development of the surrealist object and experimentation in the medium of film. He collaborated with the film maker Luis Buuel (1900-83) on Un Chien Andalou (1929) and L'Age d'Or (1930).
The painter Marc Chagall (1887-1985), though not a member of the Surrealist group, also developed a dreamlike style featuring irrational juxtapositions that often involved imagery derived from his Russian Jewish childhood.
hood.
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* MOVEMENTS IN ART SINCE 1945
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM (LITERATURE)
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Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 20th Century (page 1)
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Gaudi's church of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona. An original and expressive architect, Gaudi used organic' and nightmarish shapes and decorations in his buildings.
Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 20th Century
(1 of 2)
The 20th century has made more difference than any other to the way people live. The forms and scale of modern architecture have transformed existing towns and cities and created new ones. While local traditions of building and design did not entirely die out, and throughout the century revivals of earlier styles continued, modernism became the first truly international style, with broadly similar products originating in the United States, Europe, Africa and Asia.
In the closing years of the 19th century, however, architects and designers were increasingly willing to mix many styles - Classical, Gothic, Oriental or Celtic - within a single building or piece of furniture. The continuing influence of the Arts and Crafts movements meant that design could vary more from country to country, even when stylistic sources were apparently the same.
Art Nouveau
As the name suggests, Art Nouveau (New Art) was seen as an entirely new style in both architecture and the decorative arts. Although it owed some inspiration to Celtic art and to the Gothic Revival return to naturalism, its whiplash curves and motifs of entwining plant-forms, flowers and women's hair were entirely original. The style first appeared in painting and it emerged fully formed in Brussels in 1892 with the flowing forms of the ironwork and mosaics of the Tassel house, designed by Victor Horta (1861-1947). It achieved its fullest expression in Paris following the Exposition Universelle of 1900, in particular in the Metro stations and entrances by Hector Guimard (1867-1942), and in the bizarre architecture of Antonio Gaudi (1852-1926) in Barcelona, such as his Parc Geell (1900-14).
Different expressions of the Art Nouveau spirit were taking place in Austria and Scotland. Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928) designed furniture, buildings, metalwork and posters which, in their exuberant floral motifs, show an affinity with continental Art Nouveau. However, his designs have asparseness and economy that is quite different. His Glasgow School of Art buildings (1897-1909) are revolutionary in their use of simple shapes and lack of decoration.
In 1905 the Austrian architect and designer Josef Hoffmann (1870-1956) designed the Palais Stoclet, a large house in Brussels. This has an overall simplicity of form, like the Glasgow School of Art. The intentions of Mackintosh and Viennese designers such as Hoffmann were quite different from those of the French and Belgian exponents of Art Nouveau, and in many ways can be seen as precursors of Modernism.
Modernism - the `International Style'
The central ideal of Modernism was that the beauty of designed objects - buildings, furniture or anything else - depended on the extent to which they functioned well. Thus it was both a moral and an aesthetic imperative that, for instance, the form of a building should reflect its function and express its construction.
Advances in technology made possible the realization of modernist aspirations. Reinforced concrete and steel-framing, where the stresses in a building are carried not by the walls but by a steel frame arranged in a series of boxes, meant that buildings could be built much more cheaply and simply. It also allowed the construction of skyscrapers, pioneered by the American Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) in such works as the Wainwright building, St Louis, Missouri (1890).
The skyscraper was just one of the many modes of building used by Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959). Until the 1930s he made a specialty of medium-sized, often suburban, houses. The culmination of his flexible planning, where the interiors and exteriors flow into one another via terraces and cantilevered roofs, is Falling Water, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (1936-37), a series of rectangular concrete boxes built up over a waterfall.
In Austria and Germany Modernism grew out of a widespread desire for simplicity in design. The Fagus Works factory (1911-12) at Alfeld-an-der-Leine, designed by Walter Gropius (1883-1969), is a startlingly novel construction, with a complete facade in glass revealing the apparently unsupported concrete staircase within.
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
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Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 20th Century (page 2)
ftsTitle
The Lloyds of London building designed by British architect Richard Rogers. The building, typical of the Hi-tech style, has a number of its functional features on the outside.
Architecture and the Applied Arts in the 20th Century
(2 of 2)
Gropius was a founder in 1919 of the Bauhaus art and design school in Weimar (later in Dessau), which he saw as continuing the Arts and Crafts traditions of architects, designers and craftsmen working in close collaboration. The main difference was that at the Bauhaus mass production, standardization and new materials were fully accepted and celebrated, so that their buildings were economical to build and their designs could be cheaply produced in large quantities.
The Swiss architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965) expounded similar ideas, but went further by claiming that architecture should be based on geometric figures - cubes, cones, etc. - with these spaces within a building connected by simple means such as ramps. In the same spirit all fittings and furnishings should be standardized, as, he claimed, houses were `machines for living in'. All these ideas are realized in his Villa Savoie, Poissy (1929-31).
Le Corbusier believed that just as individual buildings should be based on these purist, geometrical and rational principles, so should towns. His projects for a `Contemporary City' (1922-5) and `Radiating Town' (1935) are complex grids of intersecting squares and rectangles with areas for business institutions (contained in 60-story skyscrapers), cultural institutions, industry and blocks of housing, with separate vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Art Deco
The uncompromising austerity of modernism was countered almost as soon as it began. Art Deco, which applies to both architecture and design, took its name from the 1925 Paris Exposition Inter nationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes. Early Art Deco was characterized by stylized flowers but from the early 1920s these gave way to more geometric forms such as sunbursts and ziggurats, reflecting the discoveries of Aztec temples in Mexico and Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt.
These zigzag motifs also served to signify speed, for Art Deco celebrated the modern age in as lighthearted a way as the modernists were serious. The English ceramicist Clarice Cliff (1899-1970) designed `Bizarre' pottery in the 1930s in simple shapes with triangular-handled straight-sided cups and bold, stylized decoration in primary colors.
The postwar scene
The destruction wrought in Europe by six years of war saw the implementation in the 1950s and 1960s of many of Le Corbusier's and the other Modernists' ideas about city planning. In developing countries this went a stage further, as in Brazil where a capital city, Brasilia, has been designed from scratch and largely built by the Brazilians themselves. In the applied arts there was a more lighthearted spirit, perhaps as a reaction to postwar gloom. Typical were the textile designs of Lucienne Day, whose `Calyx' fabric (1951) featured abstract shapes, inspired by Mirs paintings, in primary colors joined by spidery lines.
Hi-tech
In the 1970s a distinct development in architecture took place, partly as a result of the 1960s drawing-board experiments by such groups as Archigram. The Georges Pompidou Center in Paris (1970-77), designed by Richard Rogers (1933- ) and Renzo Piano (1937- ), has water pipes and electrical conduits coated in brightly colored plastic and located, along with the escalators, prominently on the exterior of the building. The purpose of this is to stress the building's various technological functions and not just its structure.
Post-Modernism
Post-Modernism emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the austerity and public criticism of such products of Modernism as high-rise blocks of flats. The term literally applies to any style which has developed since Modernism, but is particularly associated with a style pioneered in the USA by Michael Graves (1934- ). Graves adorned his Portland Public Building, Portland, Oregon (1982), with colorful, non-structural pediments, key-stones and ribbon garlands.
Graves has designed furniture in a similar style, using brightly colored plastic laminates and imitation marbles for Memphis of Milan (founded 1981), an international group of architects and designers led by the designer Ettore Sottsass (1917- ). Sottsass himself uses these materials and also shapes derived from Classicism, Art Deco and 1950s design.
Post-Modernism as practiced by Graves and Sottsass is self-consciously `fun' and, unlike Modernism, not based on polemical or didactic theories. It is perhaps too soon to judge whether it is a viable alternative to Modernism, but its influence can already be seen in shops, hotels, offices and restaurants across Europe and America.
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY
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Movements in Art since 1945 (page 1)
ftsTitle
Ken Davis' kinentic sculpture in Wilmington Delaware.
The three ton marble sphere rotates on a jet of water. (Arden Media Resources)
(Movements in Art since 1945 (1 of 1)
The postwar period is characterized by extremely varied approaches to the problems of art. Although much of the best work has been abstract, some artists have continued to work in more traditional styles. The Swiss sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901-66) and the English painter Francis Bacon (1909- ) developed highly original treatments of the human figure, expressing feelings of anguish and isolation.
Abstract Expressionism
The first new movement to emerge after the war was Abstract Expressionism, which was also the first major art movement to originate in the USA. Stimulated by the presence in New York during the war of most of the leading Surrealist artists as refugees, a group of American painters began to make abstract pictures in much freer, more improvisatory styles influenced by the Surrealists' notion of automatism. This new way of painting was pioneered by Jackson Pollock (1912-56), who went on to paint pictures on canvases laid flat on the floor. He moved around them, dripping rhythmical interweaving trails of paint from a brush or stick, the images growing unpredictably in the course of painting. But although expressive brushwork is characteristic of certain types of Abstract Expressionist painting, such as the work of Willem de Kooning (1904- ) and Franz Kline (1910-62), there are also other types in which the paint is applied more evenly to create all-over fields of color, as in the work of Mark Rothko (1903-70) and Barnett Newman (1905-70). Many Abstract Expressionist paintings are very large, and have an air of grandeur and drama.
Art Informel
Art Informel (art without form) is the name given to the dominant type of abstract painting produced in Europe (particularly Paris) in the immediate postwar years, on account of its loose, improvisatory character, with free brushwork and sometimes a heavily textured surface. It is also sometimes known as Tachism after the French word tache', meaning spot' or stain'. Though similar in some respects to American Abstract Expressionism, it developed independently and tended to be less daring, and smaller in scale. Typical artists were Nicolas de Stal (1914-55), Pierre Soulages (1919- ) and Hans Hartung (1904- ).
Post-Painterly Abstraction
By the late 1950s reaction was growing against the overwhelming dominance of Abstract Expressionism. The term Post-Painterly Abstraction' was used from 1964 to refer to the broad trend in American painting in which artists turned away from the emotional qualities of Abstract Expressionism towards a cooler, more intellectual approach. The term embraces abstract movements such as Color Stain Painting and Hard-Edge Painting, both of which abandoned expressive brushwork in favor of broad areas of unmodulated color. Color Stain Painting is a development of Color Field Painting (a term applied to Rothko's work). Artists such as Helen Frankenthaler (1928- ) and Morris Louis (1912-62) used very thin paint soaked into the canvas rather than superimposed on it. Hard Edge Painting uses sharp-contoured lines and shapes (often but not always geometrical) and flat, usually fairly bright colors. Leading exponents include Ellsworth Kelly (1923- ) and Frank Stella (1936- ).
Happenings and Performance Art
There is sometimes no clear distinction between Happenings and Performance Art, which refer to art forms combining elements of music, theater and the visual arts. However, Happenings often had an element of spontaneity (including spectator participation), whereas Performance art has usually been more formally structured. Both art forms trace their origins to the provocative activities used by the Futurists, Dadaists and Surrealists to promote their work. The word Happening' was coined by the American artist Allan Kaprow (1927-94) in 1959 and the genre flourished mainly in the 1960s. Performance art had its heyday in the 1970s, when it was often closely linked with Conceptual art (see below). It has been presented in art galleries and theaters as well as in the street and has taken many forms. They range from the strange rituals of the German Joseph Beuys (1921-87), using such props as a stuffed hare, felt and butter, the Singing Sculpture' of the British team Gilbert and George (1943- and 1942- ), in which the artists mimed, robot-like, to a piece of music, to the concerts of the American artist/musician Laurie Anderson (1947- ), which involve varied audio and visual effects as well as spoken and sung elements.
Pop art
Pop art was a movement based on the imagery of consumerism that flourished from the late 1950s to the early 1970s, mainly in the USA and Britain. It broke down barriers between high art and popular culture and was seen as a descendant of Dada because it debunked the traditional seriousness of the art world (the term Neo-Dada was sometimes used as a synonym for Pop art). In the USA the most immediate inspiration for Pop was the work of Jasper Johns (1930- ), which included paintings of flags and sculptures of beer cans, and of Robert Rauschenberg (1925- ), who made collages and combine paintings' using objects such as magazine photographs and stuffed birds. Together they opened up a new range of subject-matter. The most famous American Pop artists are Andy Warhol (1928-87) and Roy Lichtenstein (1923- ). Warhol's series of images of people and objects from modern life, such as Coca-Cola bottles and Lichtenstein's pictures based on comic strips, enormously enlarged, have become modern icons. British Pop art was strongly influenced by American imagery, but was generally less aggressive. Works of this period by British artists Peter Blake (1932- ) and David Hockney (1937- ) now evoke a feeling of nostalgia for the swinging sixties'.
Op art
The term Op art (short for optical art') is applied to a type of abstract art, usually of a geometrical kind, that explores optical phenomena such as the interaction of colors, after-images, and effects of dazzle and vibration, often in a systematic manner. The best-known exponents of Op art are the British painter Bridget Riley (1931- ) and the Hungarian-born Victor Vasarely (1908- ), who has lived in France since 1930. Op art was at its peak in the 1960s, when it was a great popular success (influencing women's fashion, for example).
Kinetic art
Whereas some Op works create an illusion of movement, Kinetic works actually move, either by means of an electric motor or through the intervention of some outside force such as air currents. Leading Kinetic artists include the American Alexander Calder (1898-1976), with his Mobiles consisting of painted cut-out metal shapes freely suspended from metal rods; and the Swiss Jean Tinguely (1925-91), whose constructions, often incorporating junk materials, have an anarchic, fantastic character.
Minimal and Land art
Minimal art flourished in the 1960s and 1970s, mainly in the USA, where it was one of the various forms of reaction against the emotionalism of Abstract Expressionism. Various artists, mainly sculptors, developed an awareness of the literalness' of objects and materials. Donald Judd (1928-94) and Sol LeWitt (1928- ) pioneered the use of industrial manufacturing techniques and materials in the creation of art, placing strong emphasis on their specific physical qualities. Much Minimal art was made by industrial craftsmen from artists' designs and is characterized by anonymous handling and the use of simple, repeated geometric forms such as cubes. In Land art (also known as Earthworks or Earth art) the raw materials are substances such as earth, rocks and soil. It emerged as a movement in the late 1960s, where it flourished in the USA, and is closely related to Minimal art and Conceptual art. Some of the projects of Robert Smithson (1938-73), the most famous exponent, involve projects of industrial-scale earth-moving operations, whereas the British sculptor' Richard Long (1945- ) makes much smaller arrangements of stones or twigs in situ or in galleries. The Bulgarian-born American environmental artist' Christo (Christo Javacheff, 1935- ) is sometimes described as a land artist, although his work really defies classification. He began wrapping small objects and progressed to wrapping whole buildings and large sections of landscape.
Conceptual art
In Conceptual art, the idea for a work is considered more important than its physical expression (often, indeed, there is no finished product', merely documentation of the artist's thoughts). The notion goes back to Marcel Duchamp, but Conceptual art did not become a recognized movement until the 1960s. It has taken many forms and is often related to Minimal art, Land art and Performance art. The means of expression employed by Conceptual artists have included photographs, texts and videos.
Superrealism
Superrealism (also known as Photo-Realism and Hyperrealism) reached its peak mainly in the USA and Britain in the late 1960s and the 1970s. It was a movement in painting (and to a lesser extent sculpture) in which artists depicted their subjects (typically taken from the everyday world) with a minute and impersonal exactitude of detail, as in a sharply focused photograph (many artists worked directly from photographs). Superrealism was a great commercial success, but was dismissed by many critics as little more than the elaborate exercise of mechanical skill. Key Superrealist artists include the American Richard Estes (1936- ), who specializes in depicting anonymous stretches of streetscape, and sculptor Duane Hanson (1925- ) from America, who produces fiberglass figures dressed in real clothes or depressing subjects such as down-and-outs and exhausted shoppers.
Neo-Expressionism
Neo-Expressionism was the most publicized movement in painting in the 1980s. It flourished mainly in Germany, Italy and the USA. Neo-Expressionist paintings are typically large and characterized by intense subjectivity of feeling and aggressively raw handling (sometimes with materials such as crockery or straw embedded in the paint surface). The subject-matter is often violent, doom-laden or mystical, but the figurative elements are sometimes almost hidden in the welter of paint. The most famous exponents are the American Julian Schnabel (1951- ) and the German Anselm Kiefer (1945- ), whose work often touches on his country's recent past, particularly the rise of the the Nazis.
jr/ra/ic
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* DADA AND SURREALISM
* ARCHITECTURE AND THE APPLIED ARTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
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Davis' kinetic sculpture
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p556-1
ftsTitleOverride
Photography as Art (page 1)
ftsTitle
Alethea (1872) by Julia Margaret Cameron shows the influence of Pre-Raphaelite painting. (Royal Photographic Society)
Photography as Art (1 of 3)
From today painting is dead!' declared the French painter Paul Delaroche in 1839, the year Louis Daguerre announced his discovery of a process for making photographic images or daguerreotypes. Delaroche voiced the expectations of many: that the camera's ability to capture in an instant every detail of the real world would spell the end of painting and drawing, and that photography was the art form of the future. An equally vocal opposing camp claimed that photography was a science, not an art - a purely mechanical process that could never rival in feeling or expression the sensitive hand of the painter or draftsman.
Since 1839, photography has assumed a vast range of forms and uses - in science and medicine, geographic exploration, anthropology, journalism and advertising - but its close relationship with art has continued throughout.
The 19th century
One of photography's first uses was as an aid to artists: painters accustomed to painting from life found photographs an invaluable source of reference for detail and composition. High-speed photographs taken by Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904) in the 1880s showed artists (and scientists) for the first time the frozen image of a galloping horse or a leaping man. Many painters, most notably the French Impressionist Edgar Degas, explored the unusual snapshot' views captured by the camera, and its ability to still a moment in time.
By contrast, many early photographers attempted to gain status and approval by self-consciously adopting the high moral themes - and even copying the forms - of 19th-century painting; others, of the pictorialist' movement, favored the deep tones and soft focus that suggested the delicate sweep of brush strokes for their portraits and picturesque landscapes - painting with light' as they saw it. Despite this, and with gradual improvements in photographic technology over the decades, photographers came to respect the photograph for its unique immediacy, its ability to capture a real sense of life. The best of them, such as the great Victorian portraitist Julia Margaret Cameron (1815-79), were able to infuse their work with a strong vitality, and to convey in their portraits a sense of genuine psychological insight.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* CINEMA
* MOVEMENTS IN ART SINCE 1945
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p556-2
ftsTitleOverride
Photography as Art (page 2)
ftsTitle
Edward Weston's Nude on Sand, photographed in California, 1936. The American's work was typified by the image - nudes, seashells, and plants - on its own or placed against the elements of the landscape. (Royal Photographic Society)
Photography as Art (2 of 3)
Modernism
Photography began to gain new status as an independent medium in the early 20th century. The famous American photographer Alfred Stieglitz (1864-1946) - through his work and writings, his Gallery 291 in New York, and his magazine Camera Work - advocated a pure' photography with aesthetic value beyond its descriptive or utilitarian function. This modernist view influenced a generation of photographers, including the Americans Edward Weston (1886-1958) and Paul Strand (1890-1976), who believed in the honest, straight photograph', and whose sharp, objective images found significant form and beauty in simple objects, figures and elements in the landscape. An inheritor of this purist tradition was Ansel Adams (1902-84), renowned for the superlative printing and haunting images of the vast untamed American landscape.
While many Americans sought inspiration in solitary nature, in Europe close ties were being forged between photographers and avant-garde artists such as the Italian Futurists, who looked to photography to celebrate the rhythm and speed of modern society, the dynamism of the machine age. For the Dadaists in Germany, and especially John Heartfield (1891-1968), photomontage (influenced by cubist collage techniques) brought different images of reality into collision and became a tool for biting social and political satire. After Dada, the Surrealists also found photography a shortcut to the unusual and bizarre, and exploited its ability to cast the ordinary in a strange light, to mystify, confuse and outrage. Foremost among them was the American Man Ray (1890-1976), whose innovative techniques and provocative wit initiated a still-continuing trend of surreal' photography.
An alternative way of seeing the world was proposed by the new objectivity' photographers led by Laszl Moholy-Nagy (1895-1946), the Hungarian-born artist who taught at the Bauhaus, the influential German design school. They found the unexpected in the commonplace not by imposing on it any surreal distortions, but by looking at it directly, from unusual angles, and with almost scientific detachment. Thus a plant seen close up looks machine-made, and a street scene from above becomes an almost abstract pattern of texture: ordinary things transformed by a point of view.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* CINEMA
* MOVEMENTS IN ART SINCE 1945
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p556-3
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Photography as Art (page 3)
ftsTitle
Dorothy Lange's (1895-1965) photograph of the American unemployed waiting in line during the Depression, photographing homeless men, migrant workers, and people at work, brought the poor conditions of worker's loves to light.
Photography as Art (3 of 3)
Documentary photography
Many photographers now regarded as great masters would never have thought of themselves as artists at all. Three photographers who inspired the Surrealists, or detected surreal qualities in everyday life, were Eugene Atget (1857-1927), Andre Kertesz (1894-1985) and Brassa (1899-1984). All three documented the life they saw around them, and so fit into a broad documentary approach that encompasses a vast span of attitudes and subject matter. In America Walker Evans (1903-1975) recorded the lives of the rural poor, the sharecroppers and tenant farmers. He created stark, powerful and dignified images that bear witness to social inequality and the harsh everyday struggle for existence. The pictures of the Frenchman Jacques-Henri Lartigue (1894-1986) brilliantly chronicled the amusing events and small happenings of French bourgeois society around him and took the apparently casual snapshot approach to new heights. In England, Bill Brandt (1904-83) produced memorable, haunting and poetic images scrutinizing life in the 1930s right across the social spectrum.
Their work prefigured that of the concerned' photographers of the postwar years who roamed the world intent on changing it for the better through their pictures of human suffering and hope. This approach is best seen in the influential work of Henri Cartier-Bresson (1908- ), whose brilliantly judged images sought that elusive decisive moment' that resulted in perfect composition and a lucid message.
Photography since 1945
Since World War II photographers have continued to innovate and find new ground. In America in the 1950s and 60s, a new, seemingly informal approach to urban or street' photography evolved through the work of those such as Lee Friedlander (1934- ), Robert Frank (1924- ) and Diane Arbus (1923-71). Mirroring the Cold War loss of faith and post-Holocaust sensibility, these photographers portrayed a less optimistic world view in which they often cast themselves as the alienated outsider, adrift in a concrete jungle.
At the same time, photography and art have become more closely aligned. Pop artists like Andy Warhol (1928-87) and Robert Rauschenberg (1925- ) often used photographic images and concepts in their work. Among the artists who have more recently made original use of photography are David Hockney, who began experimenting with photographic collages and prints made on photocopies in the 1980s, and Gilbert and George, whose work now consists mainly of garish photo-pieces' (large arrangements of photographs, usually in black-and-white and fiery red). Many other artists have used photography to record minimalist, conceptual and performance art.
As photography has become ubiquitous in recent years, so its audience is now increasingly sophisticated in its reception of photographic images, and less inclined to accept simple notions of photographic objectivity or truth'. In recent years, many photographers have turned their attention from the world out there' to express themselves by staging their own events, constructing their own images for the camera - a retreat into the private world of their own imagination. The American Cindy Sherman (1954- ) is a leading exponent of this approach.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* CINEMA
* MOVEMENTS IN ART SINCE 1945
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The Silent Cinema (page 1)
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A Praxinoscope consists of a revolving drum with mirrors in the center. On the inside of the drum is a sequence of drawn figures, each in a slightly different phase of movement. Spinning the drum creates the illusion of movement that is essential to motion pictures', which consist of a series of still photograph or frames shown one after another.
The Silent Cinema (1 of 5)
There are several claims to the invention of cinema. The American Thomas Edison (1847-1931) - already inventor of the phonograph and the incandescent electric light - was first to market a successful film machine, but it was in Europe that the potential of cinema was first recognized. Then came World War I and the American film industry, uninterrupted by the conflict that held back development in Europe, began its long dominance.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* HOLLYWOOD
* WORLD CINEMA
* HOW A FILM IS MADE
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The Silent Cinema (page 2)
ftsTitle
Intolerance (1916), Griffith's second film, intercut four stories of intolerance through the ages. The film experimented with lighting and camera shots. The close-up of Mae Marsh (see below) was one of the first of its kind. Costing $2 million, it was at the time the most expensive film ever made, with huge, spectacular sets, particularly for the Babylon sequences (shown above).
The Silent Cinema (2 of 5)
The first films
Edison's first film, Fred Ott's Sneeze, showed a laboratory assistant sneezing, and was less than a minute long. Edison's other films featured snippets of vaudeville acts, markswoman Annie Oakley, strongman Eugene Sandow and even The Execution of Mary Queen of Scots, with the axe falling and her head rolling in the dust. They made no attempt to tell a story and were filmed in a studio with unwieldy equipment. The Lumeres had a portable camera and filmed real life, making a great impact with a film of a train arriving at a station.
Illusionist Georges Meles (1861-1938) was very excited by the Lumeres' shows. He turned his theater into a cinema, and made films like theirs. On one occasion his camera stopped working for a while, so that the developed film showed a hearse suddenly replacing the cart in the previous frame. The magician realized the potential in this kind of stop action photography and in other tricks like double exposure, exploiting them in fantasy films such as Voyage to the Moon (1902).
Melis' films were very theatrical, but films like Edwin S. Porter's (1869-1941) 12-minute The Great Train Robbery (USA, 1903) and Cecil Hepworth's (1874-1956) Rescued by Rover (UK, 1905) were shot on outside locations. At one point in Porter's film the camera pans sideways to follow some horsemen; the film ends with a sudden close-up of a gunman firing straight at the audience. However, Porter did not develop these innovations further.
The inventors
The first photographer to record actual movement was English-born Eadweard Muybridge. He photographed animals and people in motion and invented a Zoopraxiscope to project these images (1880).
More practical than Muybridge's line of cameras was a photographic gun' - invented in 1882 by Frenchman Etienne Jules Marey (1830-1904) - that took a sequence of pictures on a revolving photographic plate. But it was the invention of flexible film by George Eastman that enabled Edison to invent a really practical method of photographing movement.
Edison wanted to provide a moving image to accompany his phonograph. His first attempt was a sequence of images on the phonograph cylinder, viewed through a magnifier. Then, using Eastman's film cut in half to 35 mm (1.38 in) and with sprocket holes along the sides, Edison's assistant W.K.L. Dickson (1860-1935) developed both a camera (the Kinetograph, patented 1891) and a viewer (the Kinetoscope). The film moved horizontally and in the viewer was a continuous 1.5 m (5 ft) loop of film, a shutter disc interrupting the light source. This was launched commercially in 1894 as a slot machine for solo viewing. Edison thought that projected films could be seen by too many people at once to make money.
Should Edison have the credit for inventing motion pictures? British inventor William Friese-Greene (1855-1921) had written to him outlining his own ideas for a camera and projector, and there were well over 100 different machines developed in the early 1890s by French, Czech, German and other inventors. The most successful projection system was developed by two French brothers, Auguste (1862-1954) and Louis (1864-1948) Lumire, after seeing a demonstration of the Kinetoscope. Their Cinematographe was a camera and projector in one. It combined most of the earlier ideas and added a claw system to move the film. The Lumires gave their first public show in Paris on 28 December 1895. Three months later Edison demonstrated a projector, the Vitascope, invented by Thomas Armat (1866-1948), in New York.
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The Silent Cinema (page 3)
ftsTitle
Intolerance (1916), Griffith's second film, intercut four stories of intolerance through the ages. The film experimented with lighting and camera shots. The close-up of Mae Marsh (see below) was one of the first of its kind. Costing $2 million, it was at the time the most expensive film ever made, with huge, spectacular sets, particularly for the Babylon sequences (shown above).
The Silent Cinema (3 of 5)
The first films
Edison's first film, Fred Ott's Sneeze, showed a laboratory assistant sneezing, and was less than a minute long. Edison's other films featured snippets of vaudeville acts, markswoman Annie Oakley, strongman Eugene Sandow and even The Execution of Mary Queen of Scots, with the axe falling and her head rolling in the dust. They made no attempt to tell a story and were filmed in a studio with unwieldy equipment. The Lumires had a portable camera and filmed real life, making a great impact with a film of a train arriving at a station.
Illusionist Georges Melis (1861-1938) was very excited by the Lumires' shows. He turned his theater into a cinema, and made films like theirs. On one occasion his camera stopped working for a while, so that the developed film showed a hearse suddenly replacing the cart in the previous frame. The magician realized the potential in this kind of stop action photography and in other tricks like double exposure, exploiting them in fantasy films such as Voyage to the Moon (1902).
Melis' films were very theatrical, but films like Edwin S. Porter's (1869-1941) 12-minute The Great Train Robbery (USA, 1903) and Cecil Hepworth's (1874-1956) Rescued by Rover (UK, 1905) were shot on outside locations. At one point in Porter's film the camera pans sideways to follow some horsemen; the film ends with a sudden close-up of a gunman firing straight at the audience. However, Porter did not develop these innovations further.
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The Silent Cinema (page 4)
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In The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (Robert Weine, 1919) the director of a lunatic asylum, in the guise of a fairground showman, uses a sleepwalker to commit murder. The story is finally revealed to be the dream of a madman. The odd angles and stylized sets show the influence of Expressionist painting.
The Silent Cinema (4 of 5)
Famous players
The early US cinemas, known as nickelodeons', attracted only the less well-off, who paid 5 cents to see a 20-minute program of short films. A little later, French films of successful plays running an hour or more, featuring stage actors, brought in patrons who would pay $1 a ticket. Gaumont's Queen Elizabeth (1912), with the celebrated Sarah Bernhardt, made so much money for Adolph Zukor (1873- 1976) that he founded his own company - Famous Players - with Porter directing films such as The Count of Monte Cristo (1913) and The Prisoner of Zenda (1937).
For a time Italy took the lead in film- making with a series of spectacular productions of historical subjects, including The Last Days of Pompeii, Quo Vadis! (1913) and the two-hour long Cabiria (1914), about the Punic Wars.
D.W. Griffith
It was D.W. Griffith (1875-1948), a director for the US company Biograph, who began to make more adventurous use of the camera. He experimented with lighting, long-shots and close-ups, takes of different lengths, different camera setups and angles within a scene, realizing that all these affect audience reaction. He also omitted unnecessary scene-setting and took his scenes straight into the important action.
Realizing that close-up acting demands skills different from the flamboyant style of many stage actors, he built up a team of cinema actors - including Mary Pickford (1893-1979), Dorothy (1898-1968) and Lillian (1893-1993) Gish and Lionel Barrymore (1878-1954). He was probably the first American director to make a film lasting more than one reel (12 minutes) and, in 1910, one of the earliest to take his crew to California.
Griffith's epic The Birth of a Nation (1915), about the American Civil War and its aftermath, amazed the world with what films could do. Made from a Southern viewpoint, the inbuilt racism of the film caused concern but did not obscure its cinematic achievement.
The silent comics
Mack Sennett (1884-1960) was a younger director who learned rapidly from Griffith. He developed a comedy troupe at Biograph, then went off to join the newly founded Keystone company in California. His most famous films featured the cleverly edited, speeded-up antics of the Keystone Cops, and were made to a regular formula of chases and slapstick, using stop and reverse action filming combined with carefully planned stunts. Keystone films also featured such famous names as Roscoe Fatty' Arbuckle (1881-1932), Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977) and Buster Keaton (1895- 1966).
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The Silent Cinema (page 5)
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Charlie Chaplin's screen persona as a pathetic, endearing little tramp was developed through a series of films and made him one of the first Hollywood stars.
The Silent Cinema (5 of 5)
European silent classics
In the years after World War I the European cinema could not compete with Hollywood commercially but led in terms of experiment. Robert Wiene's (1881- 1938) Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1919), using expressionist settings, and F.W. Murnau's (1888-1931) Nosferatu (1921, an early Dracula) drew attention to German cinema, which went on to produce many films notable for their distinctive style and social awareness, such as G.W. Pabst's (1887-1967) Pandora's Box (1928) and the Austrian Fritz Lang's (1890-1976) Metropolis (1927).
In France intellectuals experimented with the film as a serious art form: examples include Jean Cocteau's (1889-1963) Blood of a Poet (1930) and Luis Buuel's (1900-83) Un Chien Andalou (1928), made in collaboration with Salvador Dali. Rene Clair's (1898-1981) farce An Italian Straw Hat (1927), Abel Gance's (1899-1981) Napoleon (1927) - which used a wide screen with three overlapping images - and Carl Theodor Dreyer's (1889-1968) The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928) are among those recognized as silent classics.
The Soviet leader Lenin saw Griffith's Intolerance and recognized the power of cinema, declaring it the foremost cultural weapon of the proletariat'. Some brilliant Russian directors emerged. The greatest of these, Sergei Eisenstein (1898-1948), used symbols to reinforce ideas and edited shots to make a collision' of images, emphasizing conflict in the subject. The cutting rhythms in his Battleship Potemkin (1925) are a virtuoso demonstration of these skills.
The introduction of color
Early feature films were often tinted with a color appropriate to the scene, or even with several colors applied by stencil for parts of a major film. Kinemacolor, invented in Britain in 1906, used two color filters in the camera and projector and two reels of film exposed alternately, and was the first of several natural color' systems. Technicolor, developed in America in about 1915, at first used a prism to split color to two film reels. The company replaced it with several different processes before, in 1941, they introduced a three-color system on a single film. Eastman Color superseded Technicolor in 1952 - a negative three-color movie from which Technicolor or Eastman Color prints can be made.
The coming of sound
In silent films, dialogue or any information that could not be presented as part of the action had to be conveyed by text inserted between the pictures. Additional atmosphere was supplied by live music, ranging from a honkytonk piano to a full symphony orchestra.
Separate sound recordings were used with film in Berlin as early as 1896, and a sound-on-movie process was patented by Eugene Lauste (1856-1935) in 1906, though it was not at first effective for speech. In 1926 Warner Brothers presented a synchronized music track on disc to accompany their Don Juan. This was followed by The Jazz Singer (1927), which included songs and a snatch of dialogue and is generally accepted as the first talkie'. Sound-on-movie, the sound being recorded as a varying strip of light, came into use the following year.
Audiences demanded talkies'. To provide them, directors abandoned all their cinematographic skills. The problems of sound recording brought back the static shorts of very early cinema, for the camera had to be encased in a cumbersome soundproof box. With new equipment, including the invention of the boom, a movable pole from which the microphone is suspended, cameras could be moved again. Skills in editing sound began to match those of image editing, and sound too began to be used creatively.
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Hollywood (page 1)
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In Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) Arnold Schwarzenegger employs minimal acting skills as an android that travels to our time from the future. The film's extensive use of special effects and sci-fi storyline proved a huge success with the public.
Hollywood (1 of 3)
Today Hollywood movies sweep across the world, dominating the programs in cinemas from Far East Asia to Scotland. Hollywood has become the flagship of America's popular culture. For over 80 years, Hollywood's studios and film-makers have nurtured the stars and genres that dominate popular cinema.
The first Hollywood studio was created in 1911, when the Nestor company began operations in a converted tavern and grocery store. Within a year there were 15 other studios close by. For budding film-makers, California's attractions were plentiful. Real estate was cheap, the scenery varied, and the sunshine constant. California was also a convenient distance from East Coast agents of the Motion Picture Patents Company, established to protect the equipment manufacturers.
The new medium flourished under California's skies. Film players, previously shrouded in anonymity by Patents Company decree, began to be known by name. As the popularity of individual performers grew, so did their earnings and bargaining power, and by 1917 Mary Pickford (1893-1979) could demand $350000 a picture. The studios did their part to keep their stars in the public eye, feeding the new fan magazines and gossip columnists with choice (often fabricated) tidbits. As films outgrew the converted shops and arcade parlors that were their first home, palatial cinemas were built that were more in keeping with the escapist fantasies of Hollywood films.
Hollywood's development was grounded in commerce. But artistry developed too, as directors of chase comedies, westerns and melodramas variously developed a camera eye. In 1919 the biggest stars, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks (1883-1939) and Charles Chaplin (1889-1977) joined forces with director D.W. Griffith to form United Artists and preserve their independence. In the 1920s, production heads went on raiding parties, bringing back the cream of European talent, from Greta Garbo (1905-90) and her Swedish director Mauritz Stiller (1883-1928) to sophisticated Germans like Ernst Lubitsch (1892-1947) and F.W. Murnau (1888-1931).
Not all the film-makers, however, were happy with Hollywood's factory tendencies, and Hollywood has always disliked mavericks. In 1925 Greed, filmed by the autocratic Erich von Stroheim (1894-1969), was cut by MGM from 42 reels to 10. Later, Orson Welles (1915-85) was denied the luxury of a Hollywood studio's full resources after his revolutionary first film Citizen Kane (1941) did not find approval everywhere. Four decades later, Michael Cimino (1943- ) earned the industry's ire with his profligate western Heaven's Gate (1980).
After the chaos caused by the arrival of talkies at the end of the 1920s, the major studios consolidated their power. A Production Code, newly enforced in 1934, laid down general standards of morality. But each studio had its own style. MGM, home to the powerful Louis B. Mayer (1885-1957), boasted of all the stars there are in heaven', and showcased its players in films often top-heavy with gloss. Warner Bros., principally ruled by Jack L. Warner (1892-1978), was the 1930s liveliest studio, offering sharply topical thrillers, social dramas and musicals.
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Hollywood (page 2)
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Stagecoach (1939), directed by John Ford, represents the classic mature western, featuring a group of characters on board a stagecoach that is in danger from Indians. John Wayne (1907-79) became a major star following his role in the film.
Hollywood (2 of 3)
Paramount offered sophisticated comedies and romances, though they were also home to the anarchic Marx Brothers and the pompous dramas of Cecil B. De Mille (1881-1959). Columbia, governed by the outspoken Harry Cohn (1891-1958), rose to prosperity from its Poverty Row origins with the comic fables of director Frank Capra (1897-1991). Fox (Twentieth Century-Fox after a 1935 merger) offered technical polish and family fun with dimpled Shirley Temple (1928- ) as their greatest star.
Each studio worked out a tight production program to fill the exhibitors' demands. RKO musicals featured the elegant dancing of Fred Astaire (1899-1987) and Ginger Rogers (1911- ); Warner Bros. showcased the dizzy choreography of Busby Berkeley (1895-1976). Bette Davis (1908-89) and Joan Crawford (1904-77) gave their all in women's pictures', while James Cagney (1899-1986) and Edward G. Robinson (1893-1973) snarled their way through gangster dramas. Westerns offered everything from singing cowboys like Gene Autry (1907- ) to the poetic visions of director John Ford (1894-1973). And some films created their own genres, like David O. Selznick's Gone with the Wind (1939), the epic Civil War romance which set the seal on Hollywood's power as the world's main provider of mass entertainment.
World War II brought pin-up girls like Betty Grable (1916-73) and Rita Hayworth (1918-87) in escapist Technicolor musicals, and propaganda movies. Humphrey Bogart (1899-1957) found his most memorable role in one of the best-loved war propaganda films, Casablanca (1942). Many key talents joined the forces, but they returned to a fast-changing Hollywood. Legal requirements in 1948 forced a separation between studios and their distributing arms. In the 1950s television became a competitor, and the new developments, ranging from 3-D and CinemaScope to the anguished Method acting of James Dean (1931-55) in Rebel without a Cause (1955) and Marlon Brando (1924- ) in The Wild One (1953), did little to halt the slow decline in cinema audiences.
Westerns and musicals continued to be popular in the 1950s, while science-fiction developed a following with fantasies like The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). Some film-makers, like Stanley Kramer (1913- ), producer of High Noon (1952), tried to introduce socially conscious material, though the scope was limited by industry fears of investigation from Senator McCarthy and the House Un-American Activities Committee.
In the 1960s, Hollywood films began to reflect more of the permissive society around them. Location shooting became more widespread; while a new wave of mavericks, like actor-director John Cassavetes (1929-89), bucked the system entirely. Studios were no longer the old behemoths. After 1970, MGM, home to Garbo, Clark Gable (1901-60), and zestful musicals like On the Town (1949), drastically reduced its output, and sold decades of props and costumes.
Various films signposted the future. In 1969, Dennis Hopper's (1936- ) Easy Rider (1969) proclaimed that youth was king. Then, Jaws (1975), Star Wars (1977), and E.T., the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) firmly established the new appeal of spectacle and the gifts of a director like Steven Spielberg (1947- ), a master manipulator of Hollywood's resources. Francis Ford Coppola (1939- ) demonstrated his own talents in The Godfather (1972) and its 1974 sequel.
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Hollywood (page 3)
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In On the Waterfront (Elia Kazan, 1954) Marlon Brando stars as a young stevedore who becomes the voice of conscience when he takes on the waterfront gang boss.
Hollywood (3 of 3)
By the 1980s, special effects, previously a passing feature of fantasy films, were fast moving to center stage, spearheaded by George Lucas's company Industrial Light and Magic. As if to match their comic-strip surroundings, actors' techniques broadened. In the Rocky cycle (1976-90) and films like The Terminator (1984), Sylvester Stallone (1946) and Arnold Schwarzenegger (1947- ) proclaimed the dominance of brawn over brain.
As films grew bigger, longer, and more expensive, Hollywood spent increasingly more money on maximizing their expected profits through blitz marketing. From Batman (1989) to The Flintstones (1994), no major fantasy film was released without a storm of pre-publicity and shelves full of merchandise. Each success prompted a sequel, bent on repeating the winning formula.
Though present-day Hollywood may appear dominated by brash adventure films, other kinds are made. From Mean Streets (1973) through to The Age of Innocence (1993), the films of Martin Scorsese (1942- ) have stayed dynamic and vital. Spielberg used his pre-eminence to make the three-hour, black-and-white Schindler's List (1993), about the Holocaust.
AUTEUR THEORY
The auteur theory is an influential theory of film criticism that developed in the 1950s. First proposed by the French director and film critic Francois Truffaut, it proposed that the director so dominates the making of any film that he or she should be considered its author. Its basic premise is that the director, through his or her influence on the technical and artistic aspects of a film, places a personal stamp on a film in the same way that an author does on a book. The technique, personal style and the intention of the director became the starting points for evaluating any film. The theory was applied not only to independent directors such as Erich von Stroheim (see text) and Ingmar Bergman, but also Hollywood studio directors. Opponents of the theory believe that it places too much emphasis on the director and neglects the sometimes considerable input from the writers of screenplays.
OTHER MAJOR HOLLYWOOD DIRECTORS
Woody Allen (1935- ), American: Annie Hall (1977) and Hannah and her Sisters (1986).
Richard Attenborough (1923- ), English: Gandhi (1982), Cry Freedom (1987).
Busby Berkeley (see text): Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933).
Frank Capra (see text): Mr Deeds Goes To Town (1936), You Can't Take It With You (1938), and It's a Wonderful Life (1946).
Francis Ford Coppola (see text): Patton (1969), The Godfather (1972) and Apocalypse Now (1979).
George Cukor (1899- ), American: Little Women (1933), A Star Is Born (1954) and My Fair Lady (1964).
Cecil B. De Mille (see text): The Ten Commandments (1923), King of Kings (1927) and The Greatest Show on Earth (1952).
Walt Disney (1901-66), American: director/ producer of a variety of animation films, including Snow White.
Edward Dmytryk (1908- ), American: Crossfire (1947).
John Ford (see text): Stagecoach (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), How Green Was My Valley (1941), The Searchers (1956).
Bob Fosse (1925-88), American: Sweet Charity (1966), All That Jazz (1979).
John Huston (1906-87), American: The Maltese Falcon (1941), The Treasure of Sierra Madre (1948), The African Queen (1951).
Elia Kazan (1909- ), Greek-born American: A Streetcar Named Desire (1951), On the Waterfront (1956).
Stanley Kubrick (1928- ), American: 2001: Space Odyssey (1968) and A Clockwork Orange (1971).
Joseph Losey (1909-84), American: The Servant (1963) and The Go-Between (1971).
Ernst Lubitsch (1892-1947), German-born American: Heaven Can Wait (1943).
Sam Peckinpah (1926-84), American: The Wild Bunch (1969).
Otto Preminger (1906-86), Austrian-born American: Anatomy of a Murder (1959), Exodus (1961).
John Schlesinger (1926- ), British: Midnight Cowboy (1969).
Steven Spielberg (see text), American director and producer: E.T. (1982), Jurassic Park (1993) and Schindler's List (1994).
Josef von Sternberg (1894-1969), Austrian-born American: Blue Angel (1930).
King Vidor (1894-1982), American: The Big Parade (1925), Hallelujah! (1929) and The Citadel (1938).
Peter Weir (1944- ), Australian: Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), Dead Poet's Society (1989) and Green Card (1991).
Billy Wilder (1906- ), Austrian-born American: Double Indemnity (1944), Sunset Boulevard (1950) and Some Like it Hot (1959).
William Wyler (1902-81), American: The Best Years of our Lives (1946).
Fred Zinneman (1907- ), Austrian-born American: High Noon (1952), A Man For All Seasons (1966).
ons (1966).
ons (1966).
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World Cinema (page 1)
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Hugh Grant and Andie MacDowell (right) in Four Weddings and a Funeral (Mike Newell, 1994). This romantic English comedy of manners proved a success in the UK and abroad, particularly the USA, and helped secure much-needed finance for other film-making ventures in England.
World Cinema (1 of 2)
Despite Hollywood's phenomenal output, indigenous film production is important everywhere to preserve national identity and offset foreign cultural dominance, and many countries have some kind of state support for national film industries.
Freedom from some of the pressures of Hollywood has enabled film-makers to be more personal and often more thoughtful in their films, able to reflect the societies in which they work. It has allowed them to risk experiment and to explore subjects unacceptable to the US film industry's Production Code.
In the early days of cinema, France, Italy and Britain were as important as the USA, and the first 60-minute feature, The Story of the Ned Kelly Gang (1906), was made in Australia. From the 1970s Australia again began to make a mark in world cinema with sensitive films such as Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975) by Peter Weir (1944- ) and commercial properties like Mad Max (1979), Crocodile Dundee (1986) and their sequels. More recently, the New Zealand-born Jane Campion (1954- ) won wide acclaim for her visually audacious An Angel at My Table (1990) and The Piano (1993).
The coming of sound made foreign films inaccessible to many film-goers. Although some art-house cinemas existed, few non-Hollywood films gained wide distribution in countries where a different language was spoken. Even now only a comparatively small number are seen outside the art-house and cine-club circuits, though television enables more to be seen in some countries.
British cinema
Initially, British feature films made little impact on world markets, apart from Alfred Hitchcock's (1899-1980) suspense thrillers, beginning with Blackmail (1929). In 1932, however, Hungarian-born Alexander Korda (1893-1956) set up London Film Productions to challenge Hollywood, producing such successes as The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933) and Things to Come (1936). In the 1930s, Britain pioneered the creation of a documentary tradition, led by John Grierson (1898-1972).
Towards the end of World War II Britain started to produce a string of high-quality films, including Laurence Olivier's (1907-89) Henry V (1944), David Lean's (1908-91) Oliver Twist (1948), Carol Reed's (1906-76) The Third Man (1949) and the work of Michael Powell (1905-90) and Emeric Pressburger (1902-88), especially The Red Shoes (1948). At the same time Ealing Studios began a string of delightful comedies from Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949) to The Ladykillers (1955), many exploiting the talents of Alec Guinness (1914- ).
From the late 1950s, influenced by a parallel movement in literature and theater, a series of British films focused on provincial working-class life: examples include Karel Reisz's (1926- ) Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) and Lindsay Anderson's (1923-94) This Sporting Life (1963), a tradition continued by Ken Loach's (1936- ) Kes (1970) and Raining Stones (1992). Hammer Films meanwhile established a reputation in the horror genre and Ken Russell (1927- ) displayed a maverick talent with films such as Women in Love (1969) and Tommy (1975). Also in Britain, fleeing McCarthy's witch-hunt, was US director Joseph Losey (1909-84), noted for psychological studies such as The Servant (1963) and Accident (1967).
More recent British successes, especially those like the Oscar-winning Chariots of Fire (Hugh Hudson, 1981), Gandhi (Richard Attenborough, 1982) and The Killing Fields (Roland Joffe, 1984) have been typical international productions, although a more indigenous cinema continues with films such as Bill Forsyth's (1947- ) Gregory's Girl (1980) and Mike Newell's (1942- ) Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994). Away from the mainstream, Peter Greenaway (1942- ) launched a series of idiosyncratic cinematic puzzles with The Draughtsman's Contract (1982); while Derek Jarman (1942-94) explored gay sexuality in films like Sebastiane (1976) and Caravaggio (1986).
French cinema
In the 1930s Jean Renoir (1894-1979) reflected the mood of anti-militarism in La Grande Illusion (1937), while in La Rgle du Jeu (1939) he offered a bleak social satire. Jean Gabin (1904-76) became a popular actor playing a series of doomed heroes in such films as Marcel Carne's (1909- ) Le Jour se Lve (1939).
Carne's Les Enfants du Paradis (1945), Jean Cocteau's (1889-1963) Beauty and the Beast (1946) and his Orpheus films, together with the austere films of Robert Bresson (1907- ), were among the very personal statements characteristic of intellectual French cinema. A series of comedies made by and featuring Jacques Tati (1908-82), beginning with Monsieur Hulot's Holiday (1951), also found international audiences.
Influential in the late 1950s was a group of critics turned directors, led by Francois Truffaut (1932-84), Jean-Luc Godard (1930- ), Claude Chabrol (1930- ) and Alain Resnais (1922- ). Collectively dubbed the Nouvelle Vague (New Wave), they emphasized personal style rather than conventionally well-made' films in successes such as Les Quatre-Cent Coups (Truffaut, 1959), Hiroshima Mon Amour (Resnais, 1959) and A Bout de Souffle (Godard, 1960). France continued to produce many stylish and thoughtful films from established directors like Eric Rohmer (1920- ), Agns Varda (1928- ) and Louis Malle (1932- ). In the 1980s, Claude Berri's (1934- ) Jean de Florette (1986) and Manon des Sources (1986) offered the joys of traditional story-telling, while directors like Jean-Jacques Beineix (1946- ), Luc Besson (1959- ) and Leos Carax (1962- ) dazzled young audiences with their hyperactive visual style.
Northern European cinema
The work of Danish director Carl Dreyer (1889-1968) and occasional films such as the Swedish Witchcraft through the Ages (Benjamin Christensen, 1922) and The Atonement of Gosta Berling (Mauritz Stiller, 1924) attracted attention in other countries - but Greta Garbo (1905-90), launched in the latter film, was Scandinavian silent cinema's best-known export. In the 1940s Alf Sjoberg (1903-80) had some overseas success, especially with Frenzy (1944), but it was his scriptwriter Ingmar Bergman (1918- ) who came to dominate modern Swedish cinema. After his allegorical The Seventh Seal (1957) he increasingly turned to obsessional studies of relationships, ending his career with the family saga Fanny and Alexander (1982).
In Germany, G.W. Pabst's (1887-1967) Threepenny Opera (1931) and Kameradschaft (1931) were notable early talkies, and Fritz Lang (1890-1976) made M (1931) before moving to Hollywood. The rise of Hitler put cinema in a straitjacket, though the propagandist Triumph of the Will (1934) and Olympia (1938) showed Leni Riefenstahl (1902-94) to be an accomplished film-maker.
From the 1960s a group of new young directors began to attract international attention to German cinema. Werner Herzog (1942- ) is best known for Aguirre, Wrath of God (1973) and Fitzcarraldo (1982), and Wim Wenders (1945- ) for The American Friend (1981) and Wings of Desire (1987). The prolific Rainer Werner Fassbinder (1946-82) used melodrama to explore social and sexual issues. No new generation has since come forward, but Edgar Reitz (1932- ) jumped into the spotlight with his 16-hour history of a fictitious German village, Heimat (1984).
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World Cinema (page 2)
ftsTitle
Kurosawa's Kagemusha (1980) is set in 16th- century feudal Japan. At the center is a powerful warrior who employs a double (or Kagemusha) to fool his enemies. The double, however, seizes power for himself when the warrior dies. Like many of Kurosawa's films, it deals with the moral choices facing the individual.
World Cinema
World Cinema (2 of 2)
Italian and Spanish cinema
Censorship under Mussolini's fascist regime stifled all except elegantly glamorous films, but with Ossessione (1942) Luchino Visconti (1906-76) broke the romantic conventions, attracting the description neorealist' for films showing real life in real surroundings. With the liberation of Italy, Roberto Rossellini (1906-77) launched the new style, using a mainly non-professional cast in Rome, Open City (1945), a resistance story planned while the Germans still held Rome but shot after the entry of the Allies. Impressive films dealing with social problems followed, including Vittorio de Sica's (1901-74) Bicycle Thieves (1948) and La Terra Trema (Visconti, 1948).
Neorealism influenced cinema widely from India to Brazil. In Spain, still under fascist dictatorship, young directors such as Juan Antonio Bardem (1922- ) and Luis Garcia Berlanga (1921- ) were particularly affected. Bardem was responsible for Luis Buuel's (1900-83) return to Spain to direct Viridiana (1961), where it was immediately banned. At last, with Victor Erice's (1940- ) Spirit of the Beehive (1973), Spanish cinema was able to look back honestly at Spain's recent history.
In Italy meanwhile, Federico Fellini (1920-93) moved from neorealism to an exploration of his own guilts and fantasies in films such as La Dolce Vita (1960) and 8
(1963), while Michelangelo Antonioni (1912- ) attracted attention with the enigmatic and slow-moving L'Avventura (1960). Pier Paolo Pasolini's (1922-75) controversial output included a powerful life of Christ, The Gospel According to St Matthew (1964), and unbuttoned versions of ribald literary classics. Among younger film-makers, Bernardo Bertolucci (1940- ) veered from radical critiques of Italian society to elaborate international productions like The Last Emperor (1987), while Gianni Amelio (1945- ) reinvigorated the neorealist aesthetic in films like The Stolen Children (1991).
Latin-American cinema
Influenced by neorealism and the ideas of Brazilian director Glauber Rocha (1938-81), there have been a number of attempts by South American film-makers to develop a polemical cinema, such as the Brazilian Cinema Nuovo, which would reflect their own cultures and counters commercialism. The many comedies starring Mexican comedian Cantinflas (1911-93) made him a star comparable to Chaplin in the Spanish-speaking world, but few films achieved international showing. From Los Olvidados (1950) to The Exterminating Angel (1962), Luis Buuel worked in Mexico, while Argentinian Leopoldo Torre-Nilsson (1924-78) put Argentina's cinema on the world map with The House of the Angel (1957). Isolated films such as Lima Barreto's (1905-82) The Bandit (Brazil, 1953), Tomas Gutierrez Alea's (1928- ) Memories of Underdevelopment (Cuba, 1968) and Hector Babenco's (1946- ) Kiss of the Spiderwoman (Brazil/US, 1985) have also achieved wide success.
Asian and African cinema
The Indian cinema produces three times more films annually than the USA. Its output is largely sentimental melodrama built around song and dance sequences. Both Hindi and Bengali cinema also have a lesser tradition of socially aware films, but only the films of Satyajit Ray (1921- 92) - in particular Pather Panchali (1955) - are widely known elsewhere.
Few Japanese films have made the international circuits, apart from the battle-centered historical dramas of Akira Kurosawa (1910- ) such as Seven Samurai (1954) and Ran (1986). Yasujiro Ozu (1903-63) earned a high critical reputation for the radical simplicity of family sagas like Tokyo Story (1953), while Kenji Mizoguchi (1898-1956) won fame late in life, especially for the ghostly Ugetsu Monogatari (1953). Among other striking work, Masaki Kobayashi (1916- ) produced the trilogy The Human Condition (1959-61), which deserves a place alongside the great European anti-militarist films. Nagisa Oshima (1932- ), the brightest new talent of the 1960s, moved from corrosive portraits of post-war Japan to international ventures like Merry Christmas, Mr Lawrence (1983). Newer directors draw heavily on genre parody and comic-strips; Takeshi Kitano (1948- ) in particular has the makings of a cult figure.
Only within the last 10 years has the artistic triumphs of Chinese cinema been brought to the West, sometimes against the authorities' wishes. Zhang Yimou (1950- ) heads the Fifth Generation' group of film-makers, and used his controlled but opulent style to strong effect in Ju Dou (1989) and Raise the Red Lantern (1991). Chen Kaige (1952- ) established a reputation with his stark first film Yellow Earth (1984), but won his widest audience with the lavish Farewell My Concubine (1993). Outside mainland China, Taiwan has nurtured outstanding talents like Hou Hsiao-Hsien (1947- ) and Edward Yang (1947- ); while Hong Kong producers, serving the international Chinese communities, continue to make fast-action thrillers and martial arts films originally made popular by American-born Bruce Lee (1940-73).
The most important film-maker to emerge from the Middle East is Turkey's Yilmaz Geney (1937-84), who, despite imprisonment by the authorities, made powerful films such as The Wall (1982) and Yol (1981). Indigenous films from black Africa are now achieving considerable quality, as in the work of Souleymane Cisse (1940- ) from Senegal, whose Yeelen (1988) gained international screenings. Burkina Faso's Idrissa Ouedraogo (1954- ) has also won a following with Yabba (1989) and Tilai (1990), both powerful tales of village life.
Eastern European cinema
The relaxation of controls after the death of Stalin saw a flowering of creative cinema in Eastern Europe. With films such as Ashes and Diamonds (1958) the Polish Andrzej Wajda (1926- ) displayed a major talent, while Roman Polanski (1933- ), known mostly for his films made in the West, is another ex-student of the highly regarded Polish Film School. More recently, Kryzsztof Kies
lowski (1941- ) cast a mordant eye on modern morals in his TV cycle The Ten Commandments (1988) and the 1993 film trilogy Three Colours.
In Hungary, Mikls Jancs (1921- ) created a distinctive, highly formal style in The Round-Up (1966) and The Confrontation (1969), while Istvan Szab (1938- ) found international success exploring Central European history in Mephisto (1984). In former Czechoslovakia, Milos Forman (1932- ) attracted attention with films such as The Fireman's Ball (1967), as did Jir i Menzel (1938- ) with Closely Observed Trains (1966) before the extinction of the Prague Spring'.
In Russia, Sergei Eisenstein (1898-1948) began work on his great Ivan the Terrible trilogy in 1943, but never finished because of restrictions. Liberalization under Khrushchev allowed more individual expression in films such as Mikhail Kalatzov's (1903-73) The Cranes are Flying. Later films of note included fine versions of Hamlet (1964) by Grigori Kozintsev (1905-73) and of War and Peace by Sergei Bondarchuk (1920-94). Andrei Tarkovsky (1932-88) was acclaimed abroad for films that ranged from Andrei Rublev (1966), a subjective study of a medieval painter, to the science fiction Solaris (1971). His increasingly obscure films met with official disapproval and he ended his life working abroad. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, film-makers have seemed too confused by their new freedom - or lack of resources - to make much artistic advance.
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ftsTitleOverride
How a Film is Made (page 1)
ftsTitle
Make-up artist Christopher Tucker took 7 hours to transform John Hurt (1940- ) for his role in The Elephant Man (1980), using previously made-up models to help him. The film is based on the true story of a grotesquely deformed man rescued from a fairground freak show by a doctor.
How a Film is Made (1 of 2)
The technology of cinema has developed considerably during its first century. Improvements in film stock, lenses, lighting, sound reproduction and color have all contributed, but the basic methods of film production have changed little since the coming of sound and are the same whatever kind of film is being made. Prop makers and scene builders now make use of new materials such as plastics, but the major recent change has been in the use of computers, not so much to create images as to control the positions and precise movements of subjects and cameras for complex special effects.
D.W. Griffith improvised many of his early films from a few notes on the back of an envelope, but feature films usually involve a great many people and much detailed planning. The making of a film can be divided into three broad areas: preproduction, production and postproduction.
Preproduction
A film begins either with a screenwriter or a director developing an idea and interesting a producer, or with a producer having an original idea or deciding that an existing book or play would make a good film.
The producer, whether on the staff of a big film company or an independent developing his or her own films, is responsible for the business side of the project. The producer raises the finance, which may come from corporations, individual investors, distributors (who will later profit from renting the film out to cinemas) or television and video companies (who want to acquire the right to show or rent it). A budget and filming schedule will be drawn up. The producer will also engage all the personnel required, although the director - and possibly the leading actors, when contracted - may have a say in who is taken on.
The producer, sometimes with the involvement of the director, will have a script developed. First comes a treatment - a synopsis of the action - which is often essential for raising finance. This is then developed into a shooting script, which contains dialogue and scene descriptions and can go through many versions before a final form is agreed.
Studio space must be booked, suitable locations found and transportation problems solved. Everyone involved must be fed and found somewhere to stay. Finally, the cooperation of local people and the police needs to be obtained for any public filming before such scenes can be filmed.
Production
Some directors like to rehearse actors away from the film set, while others simply run through a scene immediately before filming it. Even when actors are encouraged to improvise, the camerawork is usually carefully planned in advance. Often a storyboard - a sequence of drawings showing the contents of the picture for each change of image or viewpoint - is prepared beforehand.
Some shots (uninterrupted sequences of filming) - such as a building being demolished or a car crashing over a cliff - may be difficult to restage and have to be got right first time. However, a shot often has to be taken again and again because of something unwanted appearing within the picture or on the soundtrack, quite apart from any mistake the actors make. Each take is identified by filming a clapperboard, with scene and take numbers chalked on it, at the beginning of each shot. The clapperboy brings down a wooden bar on the edge of the board to make a clap to guide synchronization of sound and image when the film is edited. Sometimes film is shot without sound (especially in Italy) and dialogue is dubbed over afterwards. This avoids some problems in filming, but adds complications later.
Filming is often out of continuity as far as the story is concerned - for instance, when all scenes on one set, or involving one actor, are filmed together. In Serpico (Sidney Lumet, 1973) Al Pacino (1939- ), as an undercover detective, had to grow a disguise of hippy beard and hair. The unit could not wait for his hair to grow between shots so he grew it first and scenes were filmed in reverse order, with the beard and hair gradually cut off so that the cleanshaven look was filmed last.
The time taken in preparing each shot and in retakes makes film-making a slow and expensive business. Often it takes a whole day to film only a few minutes of final action, and the budget of an average feature film is in the region of $10 million.
Postproduction
Postproduction is when a film is put together. The editor assembles satisfactory takes, or parts of takes (of which continuity will have kept a record), in a sequence to tell the story and make the cumulative or contrasting effects the director requires. This rough cut is without a soundtrack.
Now special effects and optical links - mixes (or dissolves), fade-ins, fade-outs and wipes (when the picture is replaced by another moving across it) - and sound are added, including sound effects that may not be on the original soundtrack. The editing will be tightened up to perfect each transition and to regulate the over all pace of the film, and titles and credits will be added. Actors now dub scenes recorded mute or badly, watching the projected film and synchronizing speech with their lip movements on the screen. Finally, music is composed and recorded to fit the final cut, which is made from the master negative, earlier editing having been done on replaceable working prints.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* SILENT FILMS
* HOLLYWOOD
* WORLD CINEMA
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p564-2
ftsTitleOverride
How a Film is Made (page 2)
ftsTitle
Bob Hoskins (1942- ) has trouble with roger rabbit in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), which combines cartoon and real-life characters. The action shot (top) in which an extension to the tap produces the stream of water that will come out of roger rabbit's mouth, and the cartoon drawing (center) are combined to make the complete shot (bottom).
How a Film is Made (2 of 2)
Distribution
The film now passes to the distributors, who buy from the producers the right to rent out the film to cinemas. Sometimes they may insist on changes being made to the content or length of the film to suit their ideas of what will be successful. Finally, the film may be seen by a censorship body, which can insist on deletions of sequences they consider offensive or limit viewing to audiences over certain ages. Television channels that show films will also make their own cuts to fit time schedules or to make the film more suitable for their viewers. Sometimes the producers will make special television versions that may, for example, exclude swearing or explicit sex scenes that are considered acceptable in the cinema but not on television.
THE CREW
Director: has overall artistic control of the film; second unit or assistant directors may handle scenes shot on distant locations or help to handle large-scale filming.
Art director: designs sets and chooses locations; controls set dressers and costume designers.
Director of photography (cinematographer): a specialist in the film image, responsible for lighting, camerawork and manipulation; controls camera operators (who run cameras) and assistants (who load film, focus cameras and move them about).
Sound mixer: a specialist in capturing and using sound images; supported by recordists and microphone operators.
Continuity (`script girl'): keeps records of shots made and details of action, with responsibility for ensuring consistency, e.g. same clothes worn, props in same positions and every detail matching other shots of the same scene - even to how far a cigarette has been burned down - especially when taken at different times.
Gaffer: places and rigs lights; controls an assistant known as `best boy' in Hollywood.
Key grip: the head prop person (props are all the movable things on a set from furniture to food).
SPECIAL EFFECTS
Filming has many tricks to show things that are not really there. Double exposure and stop action were used by Georges Melis, and in the silent days techniques had already been developed to avoid the need for building huge sets or to add elements to location shooting. The area of the scene in which the actors do not appear is painted on glass, or made as a model, then carefully lined up on camera so that the image fits precisely with the full-scale set or location. However, this works only if the camera is stationary. An alternative method is to block off the unwanted area with a mask or matte while filming or in optical printing, instead of combining the image in the camera. When the image is copied frame by frame, the replacement image can then be photographed on another film and the two combined. A similar masking technique can be used for filming the same actor as twins, or for other double exposures.
Sequences combining several different matte shots and involving complicated camera movements are now possible with the help of computers that control the camera and any movable elements in models with an accuracy that produces a perfect match.
Models are frequently used to produce scenes - such as floods and devastated cities - that would be impossible to stage full-scale. Shots of the model are then intercut with full-scale action shots. For creations like King Kong (1933) a whole series of sizes may be used, from a scaled figure climbing a model skyscraper to a huge mechanized hand in which an actress can be held for close-ups.
The shark in Jaws (1975) was played by life-sized models - each 7.5 m (25 ft) long. Two had complex hydraulic, pneumatic and electronic equipment to enable them to leap and dive but could only be shot from the opposite side to the controls; the third, simpler version was used for overhead shots. Each cost $250 000 to build and $1 million to operate during filming.
ANIMATED FILMS
Animated films, whether using drawn cartoons or models, depend on stop-action photography. The film is exposed one frame at a time and the picture changed, or the model moved, a fraction between each exposure. A few animators actually repaint the picture between each shot and others draw directly on the film, but in most cartoons backgrounds are created and characters and other moving elements are painted on acetate overlays called cels (originally celluloid was used). Only the moving elements are redrawn, although sometimes as many as eight layers of cels may be used in a single frame. Since five seconds of animation may require up to 60 different drawings, the cel technique saves a lot of work compared with redrawing the whole picture. In recent years computers have been used to help create the graphics for cartoons.
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